Advances in Biofeedstocks and Biofuels, Volume 4: Production Technologies for Solid and Gaseous Biof uels: Advances in Biofeedstocks and Biofuels

Preface xv 1 Biogas, Biomethane and BioCNG: Definitions, Technologies and Solutions 1 Alessandra Lee Barbosa Firmo, Fabrícia Maria Santana Silva, Ingrid Roberta de F.S. Alves, Ericka Patrícia Lima de Brito and Leandro Cesar Santos da Silva 1.1 Definitions and Sources of Production of Biogas, Biomethane and BioCNG 2 1.2 Production Chains, Utilization and Valorization of Biogas 5 1.2.1 Anaerobic Digesters 8 1.2.1.1 Techniques for Optimization of Anaerobic Digestion 12 1.2.1.2 Biogas Recovery Plants 14 1.2.1.3 Biofertilizers - Material Valorization 15 1.2.2 Landfills: Final Disposal and Biogasvalorization 16 1.3 Uses of Biomethane: Practice Examples 20 1.4 Challenges and Opportunities 21 References 25 2 Biomethanisation: Biogas Production Technologies 33 Gabor Z. Szelenyi 2.1 Relevance 34 2.2 Oxidation without Oxygen - Anaerobic Biodegradation of the Organic Matter 35 2.3 Bifurcating Metabolic Pathways 35 2.4 Methanogenesis 37 2.5 Imitation of Nature - Improvement through Controlled Environment 40 2.6 Operational Challenges 44 2.7 Post-Treatment 47 2.8 Outlook - Fields of Further Research and Technological Development 49 2.9 Conclusion - Development Goals 55 Acknowledgments 60 References 60 3 Effect of Process Parameters on Biogas Yield: A Systematic Review 65 H.O. Omoregbee, M. O. Okwu, L.K. Tartibu, A.E. Ivbanikaro, M.U. Olanipekun and A.B. Edward 3.1 Introduction 66 3.2 Effect of Process Parameters on Biogas Yield 67 3.2.1 Temperature Effect on Biogas Yield 67 3.2.2 Effect of pH on Biogas Yield 69 3.2.3 Effect of Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) on Biogas Yield 70 3.2.4 Effect of Agitation or Stirring on Biogas Yield 71 3.3 Pre-Treatment Process 72 3.3.1 Mechanical Treatment 73 3.3.2 Microwave Irradiation 73 3.3.3 Thermal Pre-Treatment Process 73 3.3.4 Chemical Treatment 74 3.3.4.1 Acid 74 3.3.4.2 Alkali 74 3.3.5 Biological Treatment 75 3.3.6 Biochemical Methane Potential 76 3.4 Effect of Co-Digestion of Two or More Substrates 76 3.5 Effect of Total Solid ContenT (TSC) 78 3.5.1 Acidogenesis 79 3.5.2 Hydrolysis 79 3.5.3 Methanogenesis 80 3.5.4 Acetogenesis 80 3.6 Addressing AD Bottlenecks Caused by the Physicochemical Properties of Substrate 80 3.6.1 Carbon Dioxide Removal Technologies for Upgrading Biogas 81 3.7 Conclusion 83 References 84 4 Biogas for Electricity Generation in Nigeria: A Systematic Review of the Prospects, Efforts and Contemporary Challenges 91 Victor M. Mbachu, Modestus O. Okwu, Celine C. Chiabuotu and Lagouge K. Tartibu 4.1 Introduction 92 4.2 Bioenergy and Biogas Technology 93 4.3 Chronicle of Research Efforts in Biogas Technology 94 4.3.1 Assessment of Biomass Potential for Biogas and Electricity Generation 94 4.3.2 Use of Co-Digestion for Enhanced Production 95 4.3.3 Enhancement of Biogas Production Using Pre-Treatment of Feedstock 96 4.3.4 Inoculation of Substrate for Biogas Production 96 4.3.5 Optimization of Biogas Production Process Parameters 97 4.3.6 Digester Design 97 4.3.7 Upgrading and Purification of Biogas 98 4.3.8 Modeling of Biogas Production 99 4.4 Current Research and Developmental Trend in Biogas Technology 100 4.5 Conclusion 101 References 101 5 Biohydrogen Production Technologies: Current Status, Challenges, and Future Perspectives 115 Akanksha Jain, Eeshita Das, Venkata Giridhar Poosarla and Gobinath Rajagopalan 5.1 Introduction 116 5.2 Hydrogen vs. Biohydrogen 116 5.3 Biohydrogen from Light Dependent Processes 119 5.3.1 Photo-Fermentation (PF) 119 5.3.1.1 Biocatalysts Involved in PF 120 5.3.1.2 General Mechanism of Biohydrogen Production from PF 123 5.3.1.3 Current Status of PF 124 5.3.1.4 Major Factors that Influence the PF Process 124 5.3.1.5 Challenges Reported 134 5.3.2 Biophotolysis (BP) 134 5.3.2.1 General Mechanism of Hydrogen Production from Biophotolysis 136 5.3.2.2 Current Status of BP 136 5.3.2.3 Major Factors Influence BP 137 5.3.2.4 Challenges Reported 141 5.4 Biohydrogen Production from Dark Fermentation 141 5.4.1 Dark Fermentation (DF) 141 5.4.2 Biocatalysts Involved in DF 143 5.4.2.1 Formate Lyase Complex 144 5.4.3 General Mechanism and Biochemistry of Biohydrogen Production from DF 144 5.4.3.1 Clostridia 144 5.4.3.2 Non-Clostridia 146 5.4.4 Current Status 146 5.4.4.1 Feedstock 146 5.4.4.2 Process Design 148 5.4.4.3 Factors Influencing DF 150 5.4.4.4 DF by Mixed Consortia 152 5.4.4.5 Biohydrogen Production by Using Pure Culture 154 5.4.5 Challenges Reported 154 5.5 Other Methods of Biohydrogen Production 154 5.5.1 Bioelectrolysis 154 5.6 Future Perspectives of Biohydrogen Production 157 Acknowledgment 158 References 158 6 Biomass Gasification, Some Theory, and Practical Examples 169 Eduardo C. M. Loureiro, Isabella A. Garrett, Clériston Vieira Junior and Sérgio Peres 6.1 Introduction 170 6.2 Fixed-Bed Reactors 171 6.3 Fluidized-Bed Reactors 173 6.4 Biomass Characterization 175 6.5 Production of Syngas from Wood in a Downdraft Fixed Bed 176 6.5.1 Methodology 176 6.5.2 Results 183 6.6 Construction and Hydrodynamic Characterization of a Bubbling Fluidized-Bed Gasifier 184 6.6.1 Introduction 184 6.6.2 Methodology 185 6.6.2.1 Bed Characterization 185 6.6.2.2 Cold Flow Model - CFM 186 6.6.2.3 Experimental Vmf 187 6.6.2.4 Theoretical Vmf 189 6.6.3 Results and Discussions 190 6.6.3.1 Velocity of Minimal Fluidization - Vmf 191 6.6.3.2 Gasifier Construction 200 6.6.3.3 Gasification Experiments 201 References 204 7 Experimental Investigation on Producer Gas Generation Through Briquettes Using Agricultural Wastes 207 Senthil Ramlingam, Balamurugan Rajendiran,Thendral T. and Sudagar S. 7.1 Introduction 208 7.2 Materials for Present Work 210 7.2.1 Feedstock 210 7.2.1.1 Sesame Plant 210 7.2.1.2 Maize Cob (MC) 211 7.2.2 Binder Material 211 7.2.3 Briquette Preparation 212 7.2.4 Physical Properties of Briquette 213 7.2.4.1 Proximate Analysis 213 7.2.4.2 Bulk Density 215 7.2.5 Ultimate Analysis 215 7.2.6 Calorific Value of Feedstock 215 7.2.7 Mechanical Properties of Briquette 216 7.2.7.1 Compressive Strength 216 7.2.7.2 Shatter Index 216 7.3 Result and Discussion 216 7.3.1 Proximate Analysis 217 7.3.1.1 Ash 217 7.3.1.2 Moisture 217 7.3.1.3 Fixed Carbon 217 7.3.1.4 Volatile Matter 218 7.3.2 Ultimate Analysis 218 7.3.3 Density 219 7.3.4 Compressive Strength of Briquette 219 7.3.5 Calorific Value 220 7.3.6 Comparative Analysis of Properties 221 7.4 Generation of Producer Gas 222 7.4.1 Effect of Temperature on Producer Gas 223 7.5 Producer Gas Suitability in Engines 224 7.6 Conclusion 224 Bibliography 225 8 Biomass Gasification for Distributed Generation and Biochar Production: An Application to the Olive Oil Supply Chain 229 Roque Aguado, Antonio Escámez, David Vera, Dolores Eliche-Quesada and Luis Pérez-Villarejo 8.1 Introduction 230 8.1.1 By-Products of the Olive Oil Industry 230 8.1.2 Gasification for Distributed Generation 232 8.1.3 Gasification for Biochar Production 236 8.2 Methodology 237 8.2.1 Description of the Experimental Gasification Plant 237 8.2.2 Physicochemical Properties of the By-Products from the Olive Oil Industry 239 8.2.3 Experimental Procedure 243 8.2.4 Biochar Physicochemical Characterization 245 8.3 Results 245 8.3.1 Assembly and Installation of the Gasification Plant 245 8.3.2 Experimental Results 246 8.3.3 Biochar Characterization and Potential for the Olive Oil Industry 250 8.4 Economic Impact of Gasification in the Olive Oil Industry 252 8.5 Conclusions 256 Acknowledgements 257 References 258 9 Conversion of Agro Wastes to Solid and Gaseous Biofuels through Thermal Cracking Technique 263 Senthil Ramlingam, Sudagar Subramanian and Pranesh Ganesan 9.1 Introduction 264 9.1.2 Energy Resources 264 9.2 Biomass 266 9.3 Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies 267 9.3.1 Thermal Cracking Process 268 9.3.1.1 Gasification 268 9.3.1.2 Pyrolysis Process 268 9.4 Types of Pyrolysis Process 269 9.4.1 Conventional or Slow Pyrolysis 269 9.4.2 Fast Pyrolysis 270 9.4.3 Flash Pyrolysis 270 9.5 Mechanism Involved During Pyrolysis 270 9.5.1 Mechanism in Hemicelluloses 270 9.5.2 Mechanism in Cellulose 272 9.5.3 Mechanism in Lignin 272 9.6 Pyrolysis Products 272 9.6.1 Bio-Oil 273 9.6.2 Residue 273 9.6.3 Syngas 274 9.7 Present Investigation 274 9.7.1 Materials and Methods 275 9.7.1.1 Cashew Nut Shell 275 9.7.1.2 Sawdust 275 9.7.1.3 Sugarcane Bagasse 276 9.7.1.4 Binder 277 9.7.2 Preparation of Briquetting 278 9.7.3 Sources for Briquetting 278 9.8 Methodology 278 9.8.1 Bio-Oil Extraction Process 281 9.9 Result and Discussion 281 9.9.1 Analysis of Briquette 281 9.9.2 Thermo Gravimetric Analysis 282 9.9.3 Products of Pyrolysis Process 283 9.9.4 Fuel Properties 284 9.9.4.1 FTIR 284 9.9.4.2 Biochar and Syngas Analysis 285 9.9.4.3 Biochar 285 9.9.4.4 Syngas 286 9.10 Conclusion 286 Bibliography 287 10 Insights Into the Production of Biochar from Organic Waste 291 Jaskiran Kaur and Gaurav Chaudhary 10.1 Introduction 292 10.2 Organic Waste as Feedstocks for Biochar Production 293 10.3 Thermochemical Conversion of Organic Waste into Biochar 294 10.4 Factors Affecting Biochar Yield and Properties 295 10.4.1 Feedstock Type and Composition 295 10.4.2 Pyrolysis Temperature 296 10.5 Utilization of Biochar 310 10.5.1 As a Soil Amendment 310 10.5.2 Carbon Sequestration 310 10.5.3 Remediation of Pollutants from Soil 311 10.5.4 Water and Wastewater Treatment 311 10.6 Conclusion 312 References 313 11 Thermo-Economic Study of öNORM M7 133 Chips in a Pilot Scale Reactor 321 Alok Dhaundiya and Divine Atsu Notation 321 11.1 Introduction 322 11.2 Material and Methods 324 11.2.1 Installation of the Experimental Unit 324 11.2.2 Physical Exergy of the System 327 11.2.3 Sinking Fund Method 329 11.3 Results and Discussion 331 11.3.1 Exergy Analysis 331 11.3.2 Valuation of Pyrolysis Unit 337 11.4 Conclusion 338 References 338 12 Production and Characterization of Briquettes Produced from Blend of Rice Husk and Water-Hyacinth 341 Modestus O. Okwu, Omonigho B. Otanocha, Olusegun D. Samuel and E. E. Akporhonor 12.1 Background of the Study 342 12.2 Review of Literature 343 12.2.1 Renewable Energy Demand 343 12.2.2 Briquette Production 344 12.2.3 Feedstock for Briquette Production 344 12.2.4 Proximate Analysis of Briquettes 345 12.3 Materials and Method 345 12.3.1 Material Processing, Measurement and Blending 345 12.3.2 Proximate Analysis of Sample Materials 346 12.3.3 Moisture Content MC (%) 347 12.3.4 Ash Content AC (%) 347 12.3.5 Volatile Matter (VM) Content 348 12.3.6 Fixed Carbon Content FC (%) 348 12.3.7 Calorific Value 348 12.4 Results and Analysis 349 12.4.1 Moisture Content 349 12.4.2 Volatile Matter Content 349 12.4.3 Ash Content 350 12.4.4 Fixed Carbon Content 350 12.5 Discussion 351 12.6 Conclusion 352 Acknowledgement 352 References 352 13 Torrefaction and Pelletization of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Energy Intensified Fuel Substitute 357 Chitra Devi Venkatachalam, Mothil Sengottian and Sathish Raam Ravichandran 13.1 Introduction - Biomass as Fuel 358 13.2 Torrefaction 359 13.2.1 Reaction Mechanism 359 13.2.2 Characterization of Torrefied Biomass 360 13.2.2.1 Moisture Content 360 13.2.2.2 Bulk Density 360 13.2.2.3 Grindability 361 13.2.2.4 High Heating Value 361 13.2.2.5 Mass Yield, Energy Yield and Enhancement Factor 362 13.2.2.6 Particle Size Distribution 363 13.2.3 Reactors for Torrefaction 364 13.2.3.1 Fixed Bed Reactor 364 13.2.3.2 Moving Bed Reactor 364 13.2.3.3 Entrained Flow Reactor 364 13.2.3.4 Fluidized Bed Reactor 364 13.2.3.5 Rotary Drum Reactor 365 13.2.3.6 Microwave Reactor 365 13.2.3.7 Hydrothermal Reactor 365 13.3. Pelletization 365 13.3.1 Pelletization of Torrefied Biomass 365 13.3.2 Types of Pelletizers 367 13.3.2.1 Flat Die Pellet Mill 367 13.3.2.2 Round Die Pellet Mill 367 13.3.3 Influence of Process Parameters during the Pelletization 368 13.3.3.1 Moisture Content 368 13.3.3.2 Pelletization Temperature 368 13.3.3.3 Particle Size 368 13.3.3.4 Press Channel Dimensions 368 13.3.3.5 Pelletization Pressure 368 13.3.3.6 Torrefaction Temperature 369 13.4 Application of Torrefaction Process 369 13.4.1 Using Torrefaction as Pre-Treatment Step for Biomass Gasification 369 13.4.2 Blending Torrefied Biomass with Coal and Co-Firing for Energy Production 369 13.4.3 Fuel for Steel Making in Blast Furnace 370 13.5 Conclusion 370 References 370 Index 375