Advances in Remote Sensing Technology and the Thre e Poles

Manish Pandey is a Research (Assistant) Professor at the University Center for Research & Development (UCRD), Chandigarh University located in Mohali, Punjab, India. Prem C. Pandey is Assistant Professor in the School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar Institute of Eminence, Uttar Pradesh, India. Yogesh Ray is Scientist E at the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Ministry of Earth Sciences (Govt. of India), Goa, India. Aman Arora is a Scientific Officer/Scientist at Bihar Mausam Sewa Kendra (Govt. of Bihar), Patna, Bihar, India. Shridhar D. Jawak is currently working as a Senior Adviser in Remote Sensing at the Svalbard Integrated Arctic Earth Observing System (SIOS), Longyearbyen, Norway. Uma K. Shukla is a Professor of sedimentology at the Center for Advanced Study in Geology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.

About the Editors xvii Notes on Contributors xx Foreword xxv Preface xxvi List of Acronyms xxviii Section I Earth Observation (EO) and Remote Sensing (RS) Applications in Polar Studies 1 1 The Three Poles: Advances in Remote Sensing in Relation to Spheres of the Planet Earth 3 Manish Pandey, Prem C. Pandey, Yogesh Ray, Aman Arora, Shridhar Digmabar Jawak, and Uma Kant Shukla 1.1 Introduction 3 1.1.1 Earth as a System and Components of the Earth System 4 1.1.2 Role of the "Three Poles" and the Three Poles Regions in the Earth System 4 1.1.2.1 Defining the Three Poles, Three Poles Regions, and Their Geographical Extent 4 1.1.2.2 Interaction Among Components of the Earth System and Role of the Three Poles 5 1.1.3 Advancement of RS Technologies in Relation to Their Application in the Three Poles Regions 6 1.1.3.1 Remote Sensing Technology Advancements 6 1.1.3.2 Role of Remote Sensing (RS) in Mapping/Monitoring/Quantitative Analysis of Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 7 1.2 Aim of the Book and Its Five Sections 11 1.3 Overview of the Contributing Chapters Covering Research About Different Aspects of the Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 11 1.4 Summary and Recommendations 14 References 15 2 Continuous Satellite Missions, Data Availability, and Nature of Future Satellite Missions with Implications to Polar Regions 24 Jagriti Mishra, Takuya Inoue, and Avinash Kumar Pandey 2.1 Introduction 24 2.1.1 Types of Orbit 24 2.1.1.1 High Earth Orbit (HEO) 25 2.1.1.2 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) 25 2.1.1.3 Semi-Synchronous Orbit 25 2.1.1.4 Molniya Orbit 25 2.1.1.5 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) 25 2.1.1.6 Polar Orbit and Sun-Synchronous Orbit 25 2.1.1.7 Lagrange's Point 26 2.2 Satellite Missions and Data Availability 26 2.3 Future Satellite Missions 26 2.4 Applicability of Satellite Products in Three Poles Regions 32 2.5 Challenges and Limitations 33 2.6 Summary 34 Acknowledgments 34 References 34 3 Assessing the Accuracy of Digital Elevation Models for Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas 36 Prodip Mandal and Shraban Sarkar 3.1 Introduction 36 3.2 Study Area 37 3.3 Materials and Methods 38 3.3.1 Generation of Cartosat-1 DEM and Orthoimage 38 3.3.2 TanDEM-X 40 3.3.3 Alos Palsar 40 3.3.4 DGPS Survey for Obtaining Ground Control Points (GCPs) 40 3.3.5 Datum Transformation 40 3.3.6 Accuracy Assessment Methods 40 3.3.6.1 Vertical Accuracy 41 3.3.6.2 Spatial Accuracy 41 3.4 Results and Discussion 41 3.4.1 Vertical Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to GCPs 41 3.4.2 Vertical Accuracy of DEMs for Different Land Use Classes 41 3.4.2.1 Dense Forest 41 3.4.2.2 Open Forest 43 3.4.2.3 Tea Garden 43 3.4.2.4 Built-up Area 43 3.4.3 Spatial Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to Stream Networks 43 3.5 Conclusions 45 Acknowledgments 46 References 46 4 An Overview of Morphometry Software Packages, Tools, and Add-ons 49 Satarupa Mitra, Shailendra Pundir, Rahul Devrani, Aman Arora, Manish Pandey, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh 4.1 Introduction 49 4.2 Overview of Morphometry Tools and Toolboxes 50 4.3 Stand-Alone Tools 52 4.4 Tools that Run within Coding Bases 54 4.5 Conclusion 55 References 55 5 Landscape Modeling, Glacier and Ice Sheet Dynamics, and the Three Poles: A Review of Models, Softwares, and Tools 58 Satarupa Mitra, Rahul Devrani, Manish Pandey, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh 5.1 Introduction 58 5.2 Taxonomy 59 5.2.1 Geomorphic Process-Based Models 60 5.2.2 Classification Based on Process of Modeling 60 5.2.2.1 Based on Geomorphic Processes 60 5.2.2.2 Based on Modeling Process 60 5.3 Working Principles for Geomorphological Models 61 5.3.1 Soil Production 61 5.3.2 Hillslope Transport 62 5.3.3 Land Sliding 62 5.3.4 Fluvial Incision and Transport 62 5.3.5 Glacial Erosion 62 5.4 Landscape Evolution Models 63 5.4.1 DEM-Based Models 63 5.4.2 Siberia 63 5.4.3 Golem 64 5.4.4 Cascade 64 5.4.5 ZScape 64 5.4.6 Child 64 5.4.7 Caesar 65 5.4.8 Apero 65 5.4.9 SIGNUM (Simple Integrated Geomorphological Numerical Model) 65 5.4.10 TTLEM (TopoToolbox Landscape Evolution Model) 1.0 65 5.5 Other Models 65 5.5.1 Delim 65 5.5.2 Eros 66 5.5.3 Landscape Evolution Model Using Global Search 66 5.5.4 eSCAPE 66 5.5.5 r.sim.terrain 1.0 66 5.6 Combined/Application-Specific Models 66 5.7 Machine Learning Models 66 5.8 LEMs Developed for Glaciated Landscapes 66 5.9 Some Significant Glacier Evolution Models 68 5.10 Models Developed for Alpine Regions 71 5.11 Models Developed for the Arctic Regio 72 5.12 Models Developed for the Antarctic Region 72 5.13 Conclusion and Future Prospects 75 Acknowledgment 75 Declaration of Competing Interest 75 References 76 6 Spectral Indices Across Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors Relating to the Three Poles: An Overview of Applications, Challenges, and Future Prospects 83 Mallikarjun Mishra, Kiran Kumari Singh, Prem C. Pandey, Rahul Devrani, Avinash Kumar Pandey, KN Prudhvi Raju, Prabhat Ranjan, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, Saeid Janizadeh, Nguyen Thuy Linh, and Manish Pandey 6.1 Introduction 83 6.2 Database and Methodology 84 6.3 Rationale of Different Spectral Indices Across RS Sensors and Platforms 85 6.4 RS Sensors and Platforms: Characteristics (Spatial, Temporal, Spectral, and Radiometric Resolutions) 87 6.5 Most Widely and Popularly Used Spectral Indices 87 6.5.1 Spectral Indices and Lithosphere 87 6.5.2 Spectral Indices and Hydrosphere 88 6.5.3 Spectral Indices and Atmosphere 90 6.5.4 Spectral Indices and Biosphere 91 6.5.5 Spectral Indices and Anthroposphere 103 6.6 Thematic Evolution and Trends 105 6.6.1 Thematic and Network Maps 105 6.7 Summary and Recommendations 110 Acknowledgments 111 References 111 Section II Antarctica: the Southernmost Continent Having the South Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 117 7 Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica: A Remote Sensing Perspective 119 Kiledar Singh Tomar, Sangita Singh Tomar, Ashutosh Venkatesh Prasad, and Alvarinho J. Luis 7.1 Introduction 119 7.2 Satellite Remote Sensing of Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica 120 7.3 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Remote Sensing 121 7.3.1 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using SAR Interferometry 121 7.3.2 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Offset Tracking 121 7.4 Remote Sensing Based Dynamics of PRG: A Case Study 122 7.4.1 Data and Methods 123 7.4.2 Results and Discussion 123 7.4.2.1 Ice Front Location 123 7.4.2.2 Glacier Velocity Over the Period of 2016-2019 124 7.4.3 Summary and Conclusion 124 References 125 8 Terrestrial Deglaciation Signatures in East Antarctica 128 Uday Sharma, Yogesh Ray, and Manish Pandey 8.1 Introduction 128 8.2 Geomorphology 128 8.2.1 East Antarctica 129 8.3 Landform Variation Concerning Various Sectors and Elevation 132 8.3.1 Dronning Maud Land 132 8.3.2 Enderby Land 133 8.3.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf, and Prince Elizabeth Land 133 8.3.4 Wilkes Land 135 8.4 Chronology 135 8.4.1 Dronning Maud Land 136 8.4.2 Enderby Land 137 8.4.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf 's and Princess Elizabeth Land 137 8.4.4 Wilkes Land 138 8.5 Discussion 138 8.6 Conclusion 139 Acknowledgments 140 References 140 9 Geospatial Tools for Monitoring Vertebrate Populations in Antarctica With a Note on the Ecological Component of the Indian Antarctic Program 144 Anant Pande, Ankita Anand, Shailendra Saini, and Kuppusamy Sivakumar 9.1 Introduction 144 9.2 Novel Geospatial Tools for Biodiversity Monitoring in Antarctica 145 9.2.1 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 145 9.2.2 Satellite Imagery 147 9.3 Spatial Mapping of Seabirds Under the Indian Antarctic Program 149 9.4 Recommendations to Incorporate New Tools for Antarctic Wildlife Monitoring Program 151 9.5 Conclusion 152 Acknowledgments 152 References 152 10 Bryophytes of Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica and Future Prospects 155 Devendra Singh 10.1 Introduction 155 10.2 Study Area 156 10.3 Materials and Methods 156 10.4 Taxonomic Treatment 156 10.5 Phytosociological Studies 174 10.6 Results and Discussion 175 10.7 Future Prospects 175 Acknowledgments 177 References 177 11 Antarctic Sea Ice Variability and Trends Over the Last Four Decades 179 Swathi M., Juhi Yadav, Avinash Kumar, and Rahul Mohan 11.1 Introduction 179 11.2 Datasets and Methods 180 11.2.1 Sea Ice Extent Analysis 180 11.2.2 Analysis of Physical Parameters 181 11.3 Results and Discussion 182 11.3.1 Sea Ice Variability in the Southern Ocean 182 11.3.2 Sea Ice Distribution With Respect to Ocean-Atmospheric Temperature 182 11.4 Summary and Conclusions 187 Acknowledgments 188 References 189 Section III Himalayas: The Third Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 191 12 Some Unresolved Problems in the Himalaya: A Synoptic View 193 Om N. Bhargava 12.1 Introduction 193 12.2 Stratigraphic Ages, Basin Configuration, and Palaeontology 193 12.3 Sedimentology 195 12.4 Tectonics and Structure 195 12.5 Magmatism and Geochronology 196 12.6 Metamorphism 196 12.7 Mineral Deposits 196 12.8 Palaeomagnetic Studies 197 12.9 Glaciological Studies 197 12.10 Geomorphological Studies 197 12.11 Conclusion 198 Acknowledgments 198 References 198 13 Fluctuations of Kolahoi Glacier, Kashmir Valley, Its Assessment With Tree-Rings of Pinus wallichiana and Comparable Satellite Imageries and Field Survey Records 203 Uttam Pandey, Santosh K. Shah, and Nivedita Mehrotra 13.1 Introduction 203 13.2 Tree-Ring Sampling Site and Data Acquisition 204 13.3 Tree-Ring Chronology and Its Assessments 206 13.4 Fluctuations of Kolahoi Glacier: Existing Records and Its Assessment With Tree-Rings 207 13.5 Conclusions 210 Acknowledgements 210 References 210 14 Applications of ICESat-2 Photon Data in the Third Pole Environment 213 Giribabu Dandabathula 14.1 Introduction 213 14.2 Brief Background About NASA's ICESat-2 Mission 214 14.3 Terrain Profiling From ICESat-2 Photon Elevations Over a Mountainous Region 216 14.4 Longitudinal Profiling of Rivers in a Mountainous Region 216 14.5 Inland Water Level Detection in Mountainous Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 216 14.6 Inferring Annual Variations of Water Levels in Mountain Lakes Using ICESat-2's ATL13 Data Product 218 14.7 Inferring Lake Ice Phenology in Mountainous Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 221 14.8 Estimating Tree Heights in Mountain Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 223 14.9 Utilization of ICESat-2 Photon Data to Generate Digital Elevation Models 223 14.10 Conclusion 225 Acknowledgments 226 References 226 15 Extreme Hydrological Event-Induced Temporal Variation in Soil Erosion of the Assiganga River Basin, NW Himalaya 230 Rohit Kumar, Rahul Devrani, Astha Dangwal, Benidhar Deshmukh, and Som Dutt 15.1 Introduction 230 15.2 Study Area 231 15.3 Methodology and Dataset 233 15.3.1 Soil Erodibility (K Factor) 234 15.3.2 Rainfall Erosivity (R Factor) 234 15.3.3 Slope Length and Steepness Factor (LS Factor) 235 15.3.4 Crop Management (C Factor) and Support Practices (P Factor) 237 15.4 Results and Discussion 239 15.4.1 Pre-Post R, C, and P Variation 239 15.4.2 Soil Loss Spatial Pattern and Extent 240 15.5 Conclusion 243 Acknowledgments 243 References 243 16 Understanding the Present and Past Climate-Human-Vegetation Dynamics in the Indian Himalaya: A Comprehensive Review 247 Mehta Bulbul, Yadav Ankit, Aljasil Chirakkal, Ambili Anoop, and Praveen K. Mishra 16.1 Introduction 247 16.2 Study Site 248 16.3 Climate Vegetation Interaction in the Indian Himalaya 248 16.3.1 Present-Day Conditions 248 16.3.2 The Holocene Epoch 249 16.3.2.1 Western Himalaya 249 16.3.2.2 Eastern Himalaya 252 16.3.2.3 Central Himalaya 253 16.4 Conclusions 253 References 254 17 Flash Flood Susceptibility Mapping of a Himalayan River Basin Using Multi-Criteria Decision-Analysis and GIS 257 Pratik Dash, Kasturi Mukherjee, and Surajit Ghosh 17.1 Introduction 257 17.2 Study Area 258 17.3 Data and Methodology 259 17.3.1 Data 259 17.3.2 Multicriteria Analysis 259 17.3.3 Selection and Classification of Flood Predictors 259 17.3.4 Flood Hazard Index 260 17.3.5 Validation 260 17.4 Results and Discussion 260 17.4.1 Flood Controlling Factors 260 17.4.2 Multicriteria Analysis 264 17.4.3 Flood Susceptibility Mapping 264 17.4.4 Validation 265 17.5 Conclusion 266 References 266 18 The Role of Himalayan Frontal Thrust in the Upliftment of Kimin Formation and the Migration of Sedimentary Basin in Arunachal Himalaya, Around Bandardewa, Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh 268 Mondip Sarma, Sajeed Zaman Borah, Devojit Bezbaruah, Tapos Kumar Goswami, and Upendra Baral 18.1 Introduction 268 18.2 Geology 269 18.2.1 Siwaliks of Arunachal Himalaya 269 18.2.2 Geology of the Study Area 269 18.3 Materials and Method 272 18.4 Study of Alluvial Fan 273 18.4.1 Description of Lithosections 273 18.4.1.1 Kimin Formation 273 18.4.1.2 Terrace Deposits 274 18.4.2 Grain Size Analysis 275 18.4.3 Cumulative Curve 275 18.4.4 Calculation of Size Parameters 275 18.4.4.1 Graphic Mean 275 18.4.4.2 Graphic Standard Deviations 275 18.4.4.3 Graphic Skewness 275 18.4.4.4 Graphic Kurtosis 275 18.4.5 Inter-Relationship of Size Parameters 275 18.4.6 cm Plot 278 18.5 Discussion and Conclusions 279 Acknowledgments 280 References 280 19 Himalayan River Profile Sensitivity Assessment by Validating of DEMs and Comparison of Hydrological Tools 283 Rahul Devrani, Rohit Kumar, Maneesh Kuruvath, Parv Kasana, Shailendra Pundir, Manish Pandey, and Sukumar Parida 19.1 Introduction 283 19.2 Study Area 284 19.3 Methodology (LSDTopoTools) 284 19.4 Details of DEM Datasets Used 286 19.4.1 Alos-palsar 286 19.4.2 Aster 286 19.4.3 CartoDEM 287 19.4.4 Copernicus DEM 287 19.4.5 Nasa Dem 287 19.4.6 Srtm 289 19.5 Result and Discussion 289 19.5.1 Assessment of DEMs Generated Watershed Boundary and Slope 289 19.5.2 Sensivity of Longitudinal River Profiles Using Different DEMs 289 19.6 Conclusion 295 Acknowledgments 295 References 295 20 Glacier Ice Thickness Estimation in Indian Himalaya Using Geophysical Methods: A Brief Review 299 Aditya Mishra, Harish Chandra Nainwal, and R. Shankar 20.1 Introduction 299 20.2 Geophysical Methods for Estimation of Glacier Ice Thickness 300 20.2.1 Gravity 300 20.2.2 Magnetic 300 20.2.3 Resistivity 300 20.2.4 Seismic 300 20.2.5 Ground Penetrating Radar 300 20.3 Geophysical Methods in the Indian Himalaya Region 300 20.4 GPR Surveys in the Debris Covered Glaciers 302 20.5 A Case Study on Debris-Covered Satopanth Glacier 303 20.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 304 Acknowledgments 304 References 305 21 Landscapes and Paleoclimate of the Ladakh Himalaya 308 Anil Kumar, Rahul Devrani, and Pradeep Srivastava 21.1 Introduction 308 21.2 Geology of the Ladakh Himalaya 308 21.2.1 Karakoram Region 310 21.3 Past Climate Variability 310 21.3.1 Early Holocene (~11.7 to 8.2 ka) 310 21.3.2 Mid-Holocene (~8.2-4.2 ka) 310 21.3.3 Late-Holocene (~4.2 ka-Present) 311 21.4 Modern Climatic and Vegetation 311 21.5 Landscapes in the Ladakh Region 312 21.6 Glaciation and Associated Landforms 315 21.7 Flood History and Disaster 315 21.8 Conclusion 316 Acknowledgment 316 References 316 22 A Review of Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Soil Loss Models With a Comparative Study From the Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basin 321 Rohit Kumar, Rahul Devrani, and Benidhar Deshmukh 22.1 Introduction 321 22.2 Geospatial Models 323 22.2.1 USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation) 324 22.2.2 RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation) 324 22.2.2.1 Rainfall Erosivity Factor "R" 325 22.2.2.2 Soil Erodibility "K" 325 22.2.2.3 Slope Length and Steepness "LS" 325 22.2.2.4 Crop Management (C) 326 22.2.2.5 Support Practices "P" 326 22.2.3 MUSLE (Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation) 326 22.3 A Case Study in Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basins Using RUSLE Model 326 22.3.1 Study Area (Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basins) 326 22.3.2 Dataset and Methodology 327 22.3.3 Rate of Soil Loss in Rishiganga Basin (RG) 328 22.3.4 Rate of Soil Loss in Lower Chambal Basin (LC) 329 22.4 Discussion 331 22.5 Conclusion 333 Acknowledgments 334 References 334 23 Wetlands as Potential Zones to Understand Spatiotemporal Plant-Human-Climate Interactions: A Review on Palynological Perspective from Western and Eastern Himalaya 340 Sandhya Misra, Anupam Sharma, Ravi Shankar Maurya, and Krishna G. Misra 23.1 Introduction 340 23.2 Importance of Wetlands 340 23.3 Climate of Himalaya 341 23.4 Vegetation Types in the Himalayan Region 341 23.5 Wetlands as Sites for Floristic Analysis 341 23.6 Wetlands as Sites for Past Vegetation-Climate-Human Interaction 342 23.7 Conclusions 347 Acknowledgments 348 References 348 24 Investigation of Land Use/Land Cover Changes in Alaknanda River Basin, Himalaya During 1976-2020 351 Varun Narayan Mishra 24.1 Introduction 351 24.2 Materials and Methods 352 24.2.1 Study Area 352 24.2.2 Data Used 352 24.2.3 Methods 353 24.2.3.1 LULC Classification Scheme 353 24.2.3.2 LULC Change Investigation 353 24.3 Results and Discussion 353 24.3.1 LULC Status 354 24.3.2 LULC Change 354 24.4 Conclusions 355 References 355 Section IV the Arctic: the Northernmost Ocean Having the North Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 357 25 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic, the Antarctic, and the Himalaya: A Synoptic View from the Cryosphere Change Perspective 359 Shyam Ranjan, Manish Pandey, and Rahul Raj 25.1 Introduction 359 25.2 Cryosphere and Its Influence on Socio-Ecological-Economical (GLASOECO) System 360 25.2.1 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on Agriculture and Livestock 360 25.2.2 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on Ecosystem and Environment 361 25.2.3 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on the Economy 362 25.2.4 Cryospheric Change as a Risk to Energy Security 362 25.3 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic and the Antarctic Regions 363 25.3.1 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic 363 25.3.2 Hydrological Changes in the Antarctic 363 25.4 Hydrological Changes in the Third Pole (Himalaya) 363 25.4.1 Runoff Flooding 364 25.4.2 Future Hydrological Change in the Third Pole 364 25.5 Conclusion 365 Acknowledgments 365 References 365 26 High-Resolution Remote Sensing for Mapping Glacier Facies in the Arctic 371 Shridhar Digambar Jawak, Sagar Filipe Wankhede, Alvarinho J. Luis, and Keshava Balakrishna 26.1 Introduction 371 26.1.1 Glacier Facies Mapping Using Multispectral Data 372 26.1.2 Image Classification 372 26.1.3 Training Samples and Operator Skill 373 26.1.4 The Test of Operator Influence 373 26.2 The Geographical Area and Geospatial Data 374 26.3 Methodology 374 26.3.1 Radiometric Calibration and Digitization 375 26.3.2 Operator Selections 376 26.3.3 Classification and Reference Point Selection 376 26.4 Results and Discussion 376 26.5 Inferences and Recommendations 378 26.6 Conclusion 378 References 378 27 Supraglacial Lake Filling Models: Examples From Greenland 381 Prateek Gantayat 27.1 Introduction 381 27.2 Methods 381 27.2.1 Supraglacial Lake FillING (SLING) 381 27.2.2 Surface Routing and Lake Filling Model (SRLF) 383 27.2.3 Surface Routing and Lake Filling With Channel Incision (SRLFCI) 384 27.3 Study Area 384 27.4 Data Used 384 27.5 Results 386 27.5.1 Results For SLING Model 386 27.5.2 Results For SRLF Model 387 27.5.3 Results For SRLFCI Model 387 27.6 Discussion 387 27.7 Conclusions 388 Acknowledgments 388 References 388 28 Arctic Sea Level Change in Remote Sensing and New Generation Climate Models 390 S. Chatterjee, R.P. Raj, A. Bonaduce, and R. Davy 28.1 Introduction 390 28.2 Remote Sensing of Arctic Ocean Sea-Level Changes 390 28.3 Results and Discussion 392 28.3.1 Observed Trend and Variability 392 28.3.2 Arctic Ocean Sea Level and Large-Scale Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation 392 28.3.3 Arctic Ocean Sea Level in CMIP6 395 28.4 Conclusions 396 Acknowledgments 398 References 398 29 Spatio-Temporal Variations of Aerosols Over the Polar Regions Based on Satellite Remote Sensing 401 Rohit Srivastava 29.1 Introduction 401 29.2 Data and Methodology 402 29.3 Results and Discussion 403 29.3.1 Seasonal Variations of Relative Humidity (RH) Over Northern and Southern Polar Regions 403 29.3.1.1 Arctic 403 29.3.1.2 Antarctic 403 29.3.2 Seasonal Variations of Winds over Northern and Southern Polar Regions 404 29.3.2.1 Arctic 404 29.3.2.2 Antarctic 405 29.3.3 Seasonal Variations of Global Fire Activities 405 29.3.4 Aerosol Variations Over the Northern and Southern Polar Region 407 29.3.5 Seasonal Aerosol Variations Over the Northern and Southern Polar Regions 407 29.3.5.1 Arctic 407 29.3.5.2 Antarctic 408 29.4 Conclusions 409 Acknowledgments 410 References 410 Section V the Research Institutions on the "three Poles," Data Pools, Data Sharing Policies, Career in Polar Science Research and Challenges 413 30 Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Indian Antarctic Programme and Its International Relevance 415 Anand K. Singh, Yogesh Ray, Shailendra Saini, Rahul Mohan, and M. Javed Beg 30.1 Introduction 415 30.2 India in the International Bodies for Antarctica 415 30.3 Multi-Disciplinary Antarctic Research in the Last Decade 416 30.4 International Relevance 417 30.5 Concluding Remarks 418 References 418 31 Indian and International Research Coordination in the Arctic 420 Archana Singh, David T. Divya, and K.P. Krishnan 31.1 The Changing Arctic and Inherited Interest 420 31.2 International Research Coordination 421 31.3 Arctic Research Coordination at the National Level 422 31.4 Coordination Among Students, Young Researchers, and Educators 424 Acknowledgments 425 Declaration of Competing Interest 425 References 425 Index 427