This volume presents a framework for interpreting cultural development in the highlands of Anatolia from the earliest settlements to the recent past. Begun in 1988, investigations by the University of Melbourne in cooperation with the Erzurum Museum have studied how past human societies adapted to and modified highland environments. After considerations of concepts such as 'frontiers', 'borders' and 'boundaries' that can be easily applied to north-east Anatolia, the study moves to an analysis of the complex literary tradition with a view to detailing an historical geography of the Bayburt and Erzurum regions. The ethnicity of the Diauehi, the identification of Sinoria of Mithradates fame and a new proposal for the route taken by Xenophon and his 10,000 troops are among the novel ideas now associated with this once neglected region. The second part deals with material culture. Beginning with an environmental conspectus, the study presents the results of a survey carried out in Bayburt during 1988 and 1990-93. An ample catalogue of finds supplements a detailed Register of Sites.To ensure comprehensiveness, as complete a ceramic sequence for north-east Anatolia as is possible to prepare at this stage is also provided. Using both textual and archaeological data, this study provides an extensive yet holistic picture of cultural change in the highlands. As such it provides a valuable resource for the study of the antiquity of east Anatolia and neighbouring lands.