Carbon Allotropes and Composites – Materials for Environment Protection and Remediation

Chandrabhan Verma works at the Interdisciplinary Center for Research in Advanced Materials, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Saudi Arabia. He obtained his PhD in material science/chemistry at the Indian Institute of Technology, Varanasi, India. He is the Associate Editor-in-Chief of the Organic Chemistry Plus Journal. He has published many articles in international journals and has more than 9000 citations. Dr. Verma has received several awards for his academic achievements. Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an adjunct professor and director of laboratories in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Science at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, United States. His research is focused on the applications of nanotechnology and advanced materials, environmental management, analytical chemistry, and other various industries. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals as well as a prolific author and editor of around a hundred books.

Preface xv 1 Preparation of Carbon Allotropes Using Different Methods 1 Omar Dagdag, Rajesh Haldhar, Seong-Cheol Kim, Elyor Berdimurodov, Sheerin Masroor, Ekemini D. Akpan and Eno E. Ebenso Abbreviations 2 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Synthesis Methods 3 1.2.1 Synthesis of CNTs 3 1.2.1.1 Arc Discharge Method 3 1.2.1.2 Laser Ablation Method 4 1.2.1.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 5 1.2.1.4 Plasma-Enhanced CVD (PE-CVD) 7 1.2.2 Synthesis of CQDs 7 1.2.2.1 Arc Discharge 8 1.2.2.2 Laser Ablation 9 1.2.2.3 Acidic Oxidation 9 1.2.2.4 Combustion/Thermal Routes 10 1.2.2.5 Microwave Pyrolysis 10 1.2.2.6 Electrochemistry Method 10 1.2.2.7 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Synthesis 10 1.3 Conclusions 11 References 11 2 Carbon Allotrope Composites: Basics, Properties, and Applications 17 Sheerin Masroor 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Allotropes of Carbon 18 2.3 Basics of Carbon Allotrope Composites and Their Properties 22 2.4 Composites of Graphite or Graphite Oxide (GO) 22 2.4.1 Applications of Graphite Oxide 24 2.5 Composites of Graphene 24 2.5.1 Applications of Graphene Oxide 24 2.6 Composite of Graphite-Carbon Nanotube (Gr-CNT)/ Polythene or Silicon 25 2.6.1 Applications of Graphite-Carbon Nanotube (Gr-CNT)/ Polythene or Silicon 26 2.7 Graphene (or Graphene Oxide)-Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) Composites 26 2.7.1 Applications of CNF Composites 26 2.8 Graphene-Fullerene Composites 26 2.8.1 Applications of Graphene-Fullerene Composites 26 2.9 Conclusion 27 References 27 3 Activation of Carbon Allotropes Through Covalent and Noncovalent Functionalization: Attempts in Modifying Properties for Enhanced Performance 31 Richika Ganjoo, Shveta Sharma and Ashish Kumar 3.1 Introduction 32 3.1.1 Carbon Allotropes: Fundamentals and Properties 32 3.1.1.1 Graphite 34 3.1.1.2 Diamond 34 3.1.1.3 Graphene 35 3.1.1.4 Activated Carbon 36 3.1.1.5 Carbon Nanotubes and Fullerene 36 3.1.2 Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes: Synthesis and Characterization 37 3.1.2.1 Covalent Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes: Synthesis and Characterization 38 3.1.2.2 Noncovalent Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes: Synthesis and Characterization 39 3.2 Applications of Functionalized Carbon Allotropes 42 3.2.1 Biomedical 42 3.2.2 Waste Treatment 43 3.2.3 Pollutants Decontamination 43 3.2.4 Anticorrosive 44 3.2.5 Tribological 44 3.2.6 Catalytic 45 3.2.7 Reinforced Materials 46 3.3 Conclusions and Future Directions 47 References 47 4 Carbon Allotropes in Lead Removal 51 Shippi Dewangan, Amarpreet K. Bhatia and Nishtha Vaidya 4.1 Introduction 52 4.2 Carbon Nanomaterials (CNMs) 55 4.3 Dimension-Based Types of Carbon Nanomaterials 55 4.4 Purification of Water Using Fullerenes 56 4.5 Application of Graphene and Its Derivatives in Water Purification 57 4.6 Application of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) in Water Purification 58 4.7 Conclusion 66 References 67 5 Carbon Allotropes in Nickel Removal 73 Amarpreet K. Bhatia, Nishtha Vaidya and Shippi Dewangan 5.1 Introduction 74 5.2 Carbon and Its Allotropes: As Remediation Technology for Ni 76 5.2.1 Nanotubes Based on Carbon 77 5.2.1.1 Overview 77 5.2.1.2 Features of CNTs 77 5.2.2 Fullerenes 80 5.2.3 Graphene 80 5.2.3.1 Overview 80 5.2.3.2 Properties 82 5.3 Removal of Ni in Wastewater by Use of Carbon Allotropes 83 5.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes for Ni Adsorption From Aqueous Solutions 83 5.3.2 Ni Adsorption From Aqueous Solutions on Composite Material of MWCNTs 84 5.3.3 GR and GO-Based Adsorbents for Removal of Ni 84 5.4 Conclusion 88 References 88 6 Molybdenum-Modified Carbon Allotropes in Wastewater Treatment 91 Madhur Babu Singh, Anirudh Pratap Singh Raman, Prashant Singh, Pallavi Jain and Kamlesh Kumari 6.1 Introduction 92 6.2 Carbon-Based Allotropes 93 6.2.1 Graphene 93 6.2.2 Graphite 93 6.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 95 6.2.4 Glassy Carbon (GC) 95 6.3 Molybdenum Disulfide 96 6.3.1 Synthesis of MoS 2 96 6.3.2 Physical Methods 97 6.3.3 Chemical Methods 98 6.3.4 Properties 99 6.4 Application of MoS 2 100 6.4.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 101 6.4.2 Catalyst 101 6.4.3 Desalination 101 6.4.4 Lubrication 102 6.4.5 Sensor 103 6.4.6 Electroanalytical 103 6.4.7 Biomedical 105 6.5 Molybdenum-Modified Carbon Allotropes in Wastewater Treatment 105 6.6 Conclusion 107 References 108 7 Carbon Allotropes in Other Metals (Cu, Zn, Fe etc.) Removal 113 Manoj Kumar Banjare, Kamalakanta Behera and Ramesh Kumar Banjare 7.1 Introduction 114 7.2 Carbon-Allotropes: Synthesis Methods, Applications and Future Perspectives 115 7.3 Reaffirmations of Heavy Metal Contaminations in Water and Their Toxic Effects 116 7.3.1 Copper 116 7.3.2 Zinc 116 7.3.3 Lead 119 7.3.4 Cadmium 119 7.3.5 Arsenic 119 7.4 Technology is Used to Treat Heavy Ions of Metal 119 7.4.1 Chemical Precipitation 119 7.4.2 Ion-Exchange 121 7.4.3 Adsorption 122 7.4.4 Membrane Filtration 123 7.4.5 Electrodialysis 124 7.4.6 Flotation 125 7.4.7 Electrochemical Treatment 126 7.4.8 Electroflotation 126 7.4.9 Coagulation and Flocculation 142 7.5 Factors Influencing How Heavy Metal Ions Adhere to CNTs 142 7.5.1 pH 142 7.5.2 Ionic Strength 143 7.5.3 CNT Dosage 143 7.5.4 Contact Time 143 7.5.5 Temperature 143 7.5.6 Thermodynamic Variables 143 7.5.7 CNT Regeneration 144 7.5.8 Isotherm Equation 144 7.5.9 Current Issues and the Need for Additional Study 144 7.6 Conclusions 144 Acknowledgments 145 References 145 8 Carbon Allotropes in Phenolic Compounds Removal 155 Manikandan Krishnamurthy and Meenakshisundaram Swaminathan 8.1 Introduction 156 8.2 Carbon Materials in Phenol Removal 159 8.2.1 Activated Carbon 159 8.2.2 Graphene 161 8.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 162 8.2.4 Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide 163 8.2.5 Graphitic Carbon Nitride 164 8.2.6 Carbon Materials in the Biodegradation of Phenols 165 8.3 Conclusions 166 References 166 9 Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 173 Elyor Berdimurodov, Khasan Berdimuradov, Ilyos Eliboyev, Abduvali Kholikov, Khamdam Akbarov, Nuritdin Kattaev, Dakeshwar Kumar Verma and Omar Dagdag 9.1 Introduction 174 9.1.1 Importance of Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 174 9.2 Main Part 175 9.2.1 Polymer-Based Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 175 9.2.2 Graphene-Aerogels-Based Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 179 9.3 Functionalized Graphene-Based Carbon Allotropes in Carbon Dioxide Capturing 183 9.4 Conclusions 187 References 187 10 Carbon Allotropes in Air Purification 191 Nishtha Vaidya, Amarpreet K. Bhatia and Shippi Dewangan 10.1 Introduction 192 10.2 Historical and Chemical Properties of Some Designated Carbon-Based Allotropes 194 10.3 Structure and Characteristics of Carbon Allotropes 194 10.4 Uses of Carbon Nanotube Filters for Removal of Air Pollutants 200 10.5 Physicochemical Characterization of CNTs 203 10.6 TiO 2 Nanofibers in a Simulated Air Purifier Under Visible Light Irradiation 204 10.7 Poly (Vinyl Pyrrolidone) (PVP) 204 10.8 VOCs 205 10.9 Heavy Metals 205 10.10 Particulate Matter (PM) 207 10.11 Techniques to Remove Air Pollutants and Improve Air Treatment Efficiency 208 10.12 Removal of NOX by Photochemical Oxidation Process 210 10.13 Chemically Adapted Nano-TiO 2 211 10.14 Alternative Nanoparticulated System 212 10.15 Photodegradation of NOX Evaluated for the ZnO-Based Systems 212 10.16 Synthesis and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 213 10.17 Mechanism of Technologies 215 10.18 Conclusion 221 References 222 11 Carbon Allotropes in Waste Decomposition and Management 229 Swati Sahu, Gajendra Singh Rathore and Sanjay Tiwari 11.1 Introduction 230 11.2 Management Methods for Waste 230 11.2.1 Landfilling 232 11.2.2 Incineration 232 11.2.3 Mechanical Recycling 232 11.2.3.1 Downcycling Method 233 11.2.3.2 Upcycling Method 233 11.3 Process of Pyrolysis: Waste Management to the Synthesis of Carbon Allotropes 233 11.4 Synthesis Methods to Produce Carbon-Based Materials From Waste Materials 235 11.4.1 Catalytic Pyrolysis 235 11.4.2 Batch Pyrolysis-Catalysis 237 11.4.3 CVD Method 237 11.4.4 Pyrolysis-Deposition Followed by CVD 238 11.4.5 Thermal Decomposition 238 11.4.6 Activation Techniques 239 11.4.6.1 Physical Activation Technique 239 11.4.6.2 Chemical Activation Technique 240 11.5 Use of Waste Materials for the Development of Carbon Allotropes 240 11.5.1 Synthesis of CNTs Using Waste Materials 240 11.5.2 Synthesis of Graphene Using Waste Materials 243 11.6 Applications for Carbon-Based Materials 245 11.6.1 CNTs 245 11.6.2 Graphene 247 11.6.3 Activated Carbon 247 11.7 Conclusions 248 References 249 12 Carbon Allotropes in a Sustainable Environment 257 Farhat A. Ansari 12.1 Introduction 258 12.2 Functionalization of Carbon Allotropes 258 12.2.1 Covalent Functionalization 258 12.2.2 Noncovalent Functionalization 260 12.3 Developments of Carbon Allotropes and Their Applications 261 12.4 Carbon Allotropes in Sustainable Environment 262 12.5 Carbon Allotropes Purification Process in the Treatment of Wastewater 263 12.5.1 Fullerenes 264 12.5.2 Bucky Paper Membrane (BP) 264 12.5.3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 265 12.5.3.1 CNT Adsorption Mechanism 265 12.5.3.2 CNTs Ozone Method 266 12.5.3.3 CNTs-Fenton-Like Systems 267 12.5.3.4 CNTs-Persulfates Systems 268 12.5.3.5 CNTs-Ferrate/Permanganate Systems 269 12.5.4 Graphene 269 12.6 Removal of Various Pollutants 270 12.6.1 Arsenic 270 12.6.2 Drugs and Pharmaceuticals 274 12.6.3 Heavy Metals 279 12.6.4 Pesticides and Other Pest Controllers 280 12.6.5 Fluoride 285 12.7 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2) Adsorption 287 12.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective 290 References 291 13 Carbonaceous Catalysts for Pollutant Degradation 303 Poonam Kaswan, Santimoy Khilari, Ankur Srivastava, Girijesh Kumar, Pratap K. Chhotaray, Mrituanjay D. Pandey and Kamalakanta Behera 13.1 Introduction 304 13.2 Strategies to Develop Carbon-Based Material 306 13.3 Advantages of Carbon-Based Metal Nanocomposites 308 13.4 Methods for the Development of Carbon-Based Nanocomposites 312 13.5 Carbon-Based Photocatalyst 313 13.5.1 Fullerene (C 60) 314 13.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes 315 13.5.3 Graphene 315 13.5.4 Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-C 3 N 4) 317 13.5.5 Diamond 318 13.6 Applications 319 13.6.1 Dye Degradation 319 13.6.2 Organic Transformation 321 13.6.3 NOx Removal 322 13.7 Factors Affecting Degradation 322 13.7.1 Radiation 322 13.7.2 Exfoliation 322 13.7.3 pH 323 13.7.4 Reaction Condition 323 13.7.5 Carbonaceous Material 323 13.8 Challenges 323 13.9 Conclusion and Future Aspects 324 Acknowledgments 325 Abbreviations 325 References 325 14 Importance and Contribution of Carbon Allotropes in a Green and Sustainable Environment 337 Ajay K. Singh 14.1 Introduction 338 14.1.1 Basic Aspects of Sustainability 338 14.2 Changes Being Observed in Nature and Their Effect on Our Planet 339 14.2.1 Water, Air, and Effect on Energy Generation 339 14.2.2 Air Quality 339 14.2.3 Pollution (Air/Water) 340 14.2.4 Carbon Footprint 341 14.2.5 Green House Effect 342 14.2.6 Ozone Layer Depletion 342 14.2.7 Temperature 343 14.2.8 Effect on Farm Products 343 14.2.9 Plastic 345 14.2.10 Radiation Pollution 346 14.3 Advantages of Green House Effect 346 14.3.1 Supports and Promotes Life 346 14.3.2 Photosynthesis 346 14.4 Industrial Sustainability 347 14.5 Corrosion and Its Implications 349 14.5.1 Corrosion 349 14.5.2 Corrosion and Sustainable Environment 350 14.5.3 Industrial Operations and Environmental Sustainability 352 14.5.4 Industrial Machinery Corrosion and Its Implications 353 14.6 Corrosion Control and Material Properties 355 14.6.1 Mechanical Properties 355 14.6.2 Corrosion Resistant Materials 358 14.6.3 Design Consideration 358 14.6.4 Erosion Corrosion 358 14.6.5 Cathodic/Anodic Protection 360 14.6.6 Corrosion Inhibitors 361 14.6.7 Nanomaterials 362 14.7 Carbon Allotropes and Corrosion Inhibition 363 14.7.1 Carbon Dots (CD) or Carbon Quantum Dots (cqd) 364 14.7.2 Buckminster Fullerene C 60 366 14.7.3 Graphene 369 14.7.4 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 373 14.8 Conclusion 377 14.8.1 Commercialization 378 14.8.2 Synergy in Mixed Nanohybrids 379 References 379 Index 383