Introduction to Electrical Engineering. Sayed Zekavat

Table of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgements xix Chapter 1 Why Electrical Engineering? 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Electrical Engineering and a Successful Career 2 1.3 What Do You Need to Know about EE? 2 1.4 Real Career Success Stories 3 1.5 Typical Situations Encountered on the Job 4 1.5.1 On-the-Job Situation 1: Active Structural Control 4 1.5.2 On-the-Job Situation 2: Chemical Process Control 6 1.5.3 On-the-Job Situation 3: Performance of an Off-Road Vehicle Prototype 8 Further Reading 12 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Charge and Current 15 2.3 Voltage 17 2.4 Respective Direction of Voltage and Current 18 2.5 KirchhoffUPSILON ~ s Current Law 18 2.6 KirchhoffUPSILON ~ s Voltage Law 22 2.7 OhmUPSILON ~ s Law and Resistors 27 2.7.1 Resistivity of a Resistor 29 2.7.2 Nonlinear Resistors 32 2.7.3 Time-Varying Resistors 32 2.8 Power and Energy 32 2.8.1 Resistor-Consumed Power 36 2.9 Independent and Dependent Sources 38 2.10 Analysis of Circuits Using PSpice 42 Bias Point Analysis 45 Time Domain (Transient) Analysis 46 Copy the Simulation Plot to the Clipboard to Submit Electronically 47 2.11 What Did You Learn? 53 Problems 54 Chapter 3 Resistive Circuits 61 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 Resistors in Parallel and Series and Equivalent Resistance 62 3.3 Voltage and Current Division/Divider Rules 71 3.3.1 Voltage Division 71 3.3.2 Current Division 74 3.4 Nodal and Mesh Analysis 81 3.4.1 Nodal Analysis 81 3.4.2 Mesh Analysis 88 3.5 Special Conditions: Super Node 92 3.6 Th.. venin/Norton Equivalent Circuits 99 3.6.1 Source Transformation 108 3.7 Superposition Principle 112 3.8 Maximum Power Transfer 118 3.9 Analysis of Circuits Using PSpice 122 3.10 What Did You Learn? 125 Problems 126 Chapter 4 Capacitance and Inductance 135 4.1 Introduction 135 4.2 Capacitors 136 4.2.1 The Relationship Between Charge, Voltage, and Current 138 4.2.2 Power 140 4.2.3 Energy 140 4.3 Capacitors in Series and Parallel 141 4.3.1 Series Capacitors 141 4.3.2 Parallel Capacitance 142 4.4 Inductors 147 4.4.1 The Relationship Between Voltage and Current 147 4.4.2 Power and Stored Energy 148 4.5 Inductors in Series and Parallel 149 4.5.1 Inductors in Series 150 4.5.2 Inductors in Parallel 150 4.6 Applications of Capacitors and Inductors 152 4.6.1 Fuel Sensors 152 4.6.2 Vibration Sensors 153 4.7 Analysis of Capacitive and Inductive Circuits Using PSpice 156 4.8 What Did You Learn? 158 Problems 159 Chapter 5 Transient Analysis 164 5.1 Introduction 164 5.2 First-Order Circuits 165 5.2.1 RC Circuits 165 5.2.2 RL Circuits 179 5.3 DC Steady State 186 5.4 DC Steady State for Capacitive..CInductive Circuits 188 5.5 Second-Order Circuits 189 5.5.1 Series RLC Circuits with a DC Voltage Source 189 5.5.2 Parallel RLC Circuits with a DC Voltage Source 196 5.6 Transient Analysis with Sinusoid Forcing Functions 198 5.7 Using PSpice to Investigate the Transient Behavior of RL and RC Circuits 201 5.8 What Did You Learn? 207 Problems 208 Chapter 6 Steady-State AC Analysis 215 6.1 Introduction: Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents 215 6.1.1 Root-Mean-Square (rms) Values (Effective Values) 220 6.1.2 Instantaneous and Average Power 221 6.2 Phasors 222 6.2.1 Phasors in Additive or (Subtractive) Sinusoids 224 6.3 Complex Impedances 225 6.3.1 The Impedance of a Resistor 225 6.3.2 The Impedance of an Inductor 225 6.3.3 The Impedance of a Capacitor 226 6.3.4 Series Connection of Impedances 228 6.3.5 Parallel Connection of Impedances 229 6.4 Steady-State Circuit Analysis Using Phasors 231 6.5 Th.. venin and Norton Equivalent Circuits with Phasors 239 6.5.1 Th.. venin Equivalent Circuits with Phasors 239 6.5.2 Norton Equivalent Circuits with Phasors 240 6.6 AC Steady-State Power 243 6.6.1 Average Power 245 6.6.2 Power Factor 246 6.6.3 Reactive Power 246 6.6.4 Complex Power 247 6.6.5 Apparent Power 249 6.6.6 Maximum Average Power Transfer 252 6.6.7 Power Factor Correction 254 6.7 Steady-State Circuit Analysis Using PSpice 259 6.8 What Did You Learn? 265 Problems 267 Chapter 7 Frequency Analysis 274 7.1 Introduction 274 7.2 First-Order Filters 276 7.2.1 Transfer Functions 276 7.3 Low-Pass Filters 276 7.3.1 Magnitude and Phase Plots 280 7.3.2 Decibels 280 7.3.3 Bode Plot 282 7.4 High-Pass Filters 285 7.4.1 Cascaded Networks 287 7.5 Second-Order Filters 289 7.5.1 Band-Pass Filters 289 7.5.2 Band-Stop Filters 291 7.6 MATLAB Applications 293 7.7 Frequency Response Analysis Using PSpice 300 7.8 What Did You Learn? 309 Problems 310 Chapter 8 Electronic Circuits 316 8.1 Introduction 316 8.2 P-Type and N-Type Semiconductors 317 8.3 Diodes 319 8.3.1 Diode Applications 323 8.3.2 Different Types of Diodes 329 8.3.3 AC-to-DC Converter 335 8.4 Transistors 338 8.4.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor 338 8.4.2 Transistor as an Amplifier 339 8.4.3 Transistors as Switches 356 8.4.4 Field-Effect Transistors 357 8.4.5 Design of NOT Gates Using NMOS Only for High-Density Integration 367 8.4.6 Design of a Logic Gate Using CMOS 369 8.5 Operational Amplifiers 371 8.6 Using PSpice to Study Diodes and Transistors 377 8.7 What Did You Learn? 385 Further Reading 385 Problems 386 Chapter 9 Power Systems and Transmission Lines 395 9.1 Introduction 395 9.2 Three-Phase Systems 396 9.2.1 Introduction 396 9.2.2 Phase Sequence 398 9.2.3 Y-Connected Generators 398 9.2.4 Y-Connected Loads 398 9.2.5 -Connected Loads 401 9.2.6 -Star and Star- Transformations 404 9.2.7 Power in Three-Phase Systems 406 9.2.8 Comparison of Star and Load Connections 411 9.2.9 Advantages of Three-Phase Systems 411 9.3 Transmission Lines 412 9.3.1 Introduction 412 9.3.2 Resistance (R) 414 9.3.3 Different Types of Conductors 415 9.3.4 Inductance (L) 416 9.3.5 Capacitance 421 9.3.6 Transmission Line Equivalent Circuits 424 9.4 Using PSpice to Study Three-Phase Systems 432 9.5 What Did You Learn? 435 Further Reading 435 Problems 436 Chapter 10 Fundamentals of Logic Circuits 440 10.1 Introduction 440 10.2 Number Systems 442 10.2.1 Binary Numbers 442 10.2.2 Hexadecimal Numbers 449 10.2.3 Octal Numbers 450 10.3 Boolean Algebra 451 10.3.1 Boolean Inversion 451 10.3.2 Boolean AND Operation 451 10.3.3 Boolean OR Operation 452 10.3.4 Boolean NAND Operation 452 10.3.5 Boolean NOR Operation 452 10.3.6 Boolean XOR Operation 452 10.3.7 Summary of Boolean Operations 452 10.3.8 Rules Used in Boolean Algebra 452 10.3.9 De MorganUPSILON ~ s Theorems 453 10.3.10 Commutativity Rule 454 10.3.11 Associativity Rule 454 10.3.12 Distributivity Rule 454 10.4 Basic Logic Gates 459 10.4.1 The NOT Gate 459 10.4.2 The AND Gate 460 10.4.3 The OR Gate 460 10.4.4 The NAND Gate 460 10.4.5 The NOR Gate 461 10.4.6 The XOR Gate 463 10.4.7 The XNOR Gate 463 10.5 Sequential Logic Circuits 466 10.5.1 Flip-Flops 466 10.5.2 Counter 470 10.6 Using PSpice to Analyze Digital Logic Circuits 474 10.7 What Did You Learn? 481 Reference 482 Problems 483 Chapter 11 Computer-Based Instrumentation Systems 488 11.1 Introduction 488 11.2 Sensors 489 11.2.1 Pressure Sensors 490 11.2.2 Temperature Sensors 491 11.2.3 Accelerometers 497 11.2.4 Strain-Gauges/Load Cells 498 11.2.5 Acoustic Sensors 500 11.2.6 Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT) 503 11.3 Signal Conditioniner 511 11.4.2 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 511 11.5 Grounding Issues 514 11.5.1 Ground Loops 514 11.6 Using PSpice to Demonstrate a Computer-Based Instrument 516 11.7 What Did You Learn? 519 Further Reading 519 Problems 519 Chapter 12 Principles of Electromechanics 524 12.1 Introduction 524 12.2 Magnetic Fields 525 12.2.1 Magnetic Flux and Flux Intensity 526 12.2.2 Magnetic Field Intensity 527 12.2.3 The Right-Hand Rule 527 12.2.4 Forces on Charges by Magnetic Fields 528 12.2.5 Forces on Current-Carrying Wires 528 12.2.6 Flux Linkages 530 12.2.7 FaradayUPSILON ~ s Law and LenzUPSILON ~ s Law 530 12.3 Magnetic Circuits 530 12.3.1 Magnetomotive Force 531 12.3.2 Reluctance 532 12.4 Mutual Inductance and Transformers 538 12.4.1 Mutual Inductance 539 12.4.2 Transformers 542 12.5 Different Types of Transformers 547 12.6 Using PSpice to Simulate Mutual Inductance and Transformers 547 12.7 What Did You Learn? 552 Problems 552 Chapter 13 Electric Machines 557 13.1 Introduction 557 13.1.1 Features of Electric Machines 558 13.1.2 Classification of Motors 558 13.2 DC Motors 559 13.2.1 Principle of Operation 559 13.2.2 Assembly of a Typical DC Motor 559 13.2.3 Operation of a DC Motor 560 13.2.4 Losses in DC Machines 561 13.3 Different Types of DC Motors 563 13.3.1 Analysis of a DC Motor 563 13.3.2 Shunt-Connected DC Motor 566 13.3.3 Separately Excited DC Motors 567 13.3.4 Permanent Magnet (PM) DC Motor 568 13.3.5 Series-Connected DC Motor 571 13.3.6 Summary of DC Motors 573 13.4 Speed Control Methods 573 13.4.1 Speed Control by Varying the Field Current 573 13.4.2 Speed Control by Varying the Armature Current 575 13.5 DC Generators 576 13.5.1 The Architecture and Principle of Operation of a DC Generator 576 13.5.2 emf Equation 577 13.6 Different Types of DC Generators 578 13.6.1 Load Regulation Characteristics of DC Generators 578 13.6.2 Separately Excited DC Generator 579 13.6.3 Shunt-Connected DC Generator 580 13.7 AC Motors 580 13.7.1 Three-Phase Synchronous Motors 581 13.7.2 Three-Phase Induction Motor 584 13.7.3 Losses in AC Machines 591 13.7.4 Power Flow Diagram for an AC Motor 591 13.8 AC Generators 592 13.8.1 Construction and Working 593 13.8.2 Winding Terminologies for the Alternator 593 13.8.3 The emf Equation of an Alternator 595 13.9 Special Types of Motors 597 13.9.1 Single-Phase Induction Motors 597 13.9.2 Stepper Motors 597 13.9.3 Brushless DC Motors 599 13.9.4 Universal Motors 600 13.10 How Is the Most Suitable Motor Selected? 602 13.11 Setup of a Simple DC Motor Circuit Using PSpice 603 13.12 What Did You Learn? 610 Further Reading 611 Problems 611 Chapter 14 Electrical Measurement Instruments 615 14.1 Introduction 615 14.2 Measurement Errors 616 14.3 Basic Measurement Instruments 619 14.3.1 An Ammeter Built Using a Galvanometer 619 14.3.2 A Voltmeter Built Using a Galvanometer 620 14.3.3 An Ohmmeter Built Using a Galvanometer 621 14.3.4 Multi-Meters 621 14.4 Time Domain and Frequency Domain 625 14.4.1 The Time Domain 625 14.4.2 The Frequency Domain 626 14.4.3 Time Domain Versus Frequency Domain 627 14.5 The Oscilloscope 628 14.6 The Spectrum Analyzer 633 14.6.1 Adjusting the Spectrum AnalyzerUPSILON ~ s Display Window 633 14.7 The Function Generator 639 14.8 What Did You Learn? 640 Problems 641 Chapter 15 Electrical Safety 646 15.1 Introduction 646 15.2 Electric Shock 646 15.2.1 Shock Effects 647 15.2.2 Shock Prevention 649 15.3 Electromagnetic Hazards 649 15.3.1 High-Frequency Hazards 649 15.3.2 Low-Frequency Hazards 651 15.3.3 Avoiding Radio Frequency Hazards 655 15.4 Arcs and Explosions 655 15.4.1 Arcs 655 15.4.2 Blasts 657 15.4.3 Explosion Prevention 657 15.5 The National Electric Code 658 15.5.1 Shock Prevention 658 15.5.2 Fire Prevention 663 15.6 What Did You Learn? 665 References 665 Problems 666 Appendix A: Solving Linear Equations 671 Appendix B: Laplace Transform 673 Appendix C: Complex Numbers 677 Selected Solutions 683 Index 687