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Materials for Biomedical Engineering – Fundamentals and Applications de MN Rahaman

Materials for Biomedical Engineering – Fundamentals and Applications

Autor MN Rahaman
en Limba Engleză Hardback – 3 ian 2022
MATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING A comprehensive yet accessible introductory textbook designed for one-semester courses in biomaterials
Biomaterials are used throughout the biomedical industry in a range of applications, from cardiovascular devices and medical and dental implants to regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and cancer treatment. Materials for Biomedical Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications provides an up-to-date introduction to biomaterials, their interaction with cells and tissues, and their use in both conventional and emerging areas of biomedicine.
Requiring no previous background in the subject, this student-friendly textbook covers the basic concepts and principles of materials science, the classes of materials used as biomaterials, the degradation of biomaterials in the biological environment, biocompatibility phenomena, and the major applications of biomaterials in medicine and dentistry. Throughout the text, easy-to-digest chapters address key topics such as the atomic structure, bonding, and properties of biomaterials, natural and synthetic polymers, immune responses to biomaterials, implant-associated infections, biomaterials in hard and soft tissue repair, tissue engineering and drug delivery, and more.
  • Offers accessible chapters with clear explanatory text, tables and figures, and high-quality illustrations
  • Describes how the fundamentals of biomaterials are applied in a variety of biomedical applications
  • Features a thorough overview of the history, properties, and applications of biomaterials
  • Includes numerous homework, review, and examination problems, full references, and further reading suggestions
Materials for Biomedical Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications is an excellent textbook for advanced undergraduate and graduate students in biomedical materials science courses, and a valuable resource for medical and dental students as well as students with science and engineering backgrounds with interest in biomaterials.
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Specificații

ISBN-13: 9781119551089
ISBN-10: 1119551080
Pagini: 720
Dimensiuni: 218 x 290 x 45 mm
Greutate: 1.92 kg
Editura: Wiley
Locul publicării:Hoboken, United States

Cuprins

Preface xix About the Companion Website xxi Part I General Introduction 1 1 Biomaterials - An Introductory Overview 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Definition and Meaning of Common Terms 3 1.3 Biomaterials Design and Selection 8 1.3.1 Evolving Trend in Biomaterials Design 8 1.3.2 Factors in Biomaterials Design and Selection 9 1.4 Properties of Materials 11 1.4.1 Intrinsic Properties of Metals 11 1.4.2 Intrinsic Properties of Ceramics 11 1.4.3 Intrinsic Properties of Polymers 12 1.4.4 Properties of Composites 12 1.4.5 Representation of Properties 13 1.5 Case Study in Materials Design and Selection: The Hip Implant 13 1.6 Brief History of the Evolution of Biomaterials 17 1.7 Biomaterials - An Interdisciplinary Field 19 1.8 Concluding Remarks 19 Part II Materials Science of Biomaterials 21 2 Atomic Structure and Bonding 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Interatomic Forces and Bonding Energies 23 2.3 Types of Bonds between Atoms and Molecules 26 2.4 Primary Bonds 27 2.4.1 Ionic Bonding 29 2.4.2 Covalent Bonding 30 2.4.3 Metallic Bonding 33 2.5 Secondary Bonds 34 2.5.1 Van der Waals Bonding 34 2.5.2 Hydrogen Bonding 35 2.6 Atomic Bonding and Structure in Proteins 36 2.6.1 Primary Structure 36 2.6.2 Secondary Structure 37 2.6.3 Tertiary Structure 38 2.6.4 Quaternary Structure 43 2.7 Concluding Remarks 44 3 Structure of Solids 47 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Packing of Atoms in Crystals 47 3.2.1 Unit Cells and Crystal Systems 49 3.3 Structure of Solids Used as Biomaterials 51 3.3.1 Crystal Structure of Metals 51 3.3.2 Crystal Structure of Ceramics 52 3.3.3 Structure of Inorganic Glasses 54 3.3.4 Structure of Carbon Materials 55 3.3.5 Structure of Polymers 57 3.4 Defects in Crystalline Solids 58 3.4.1 Point Defects 59 3.4.2 Line Defects: Dislocations 59 3.4.3 Planar Defects: Surfaces and Grain Boundaries 62 3.5 Microstructure of Biomaterials 62 3.5.1 Microstructure of Dense Biomaterials 63 3.5.2 Microstructure of Porous Biomaterials 64 3.6 Special Topic: Lattice Planes and Directions 65 3.7 Concluding Remarks 67 4 Bulk Properties of Materials 69 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 Mechanical Properties of Materials 69 4.2.1 Mechanical Stress and Strain 70 4.2.2 Elastic Modulus 72 4.2.3 Mechanical Response of Materials 74 4.2.4 Stress-Strain Behavior of Metals, Ceramics, and Polymers 78 4.2.5 Fracture of Materials 79 4.2.6 Toughness and Fracture Toughness 82 4.2.7 Fatigue 82 4.2.8 Hardness 83 4.3 Effect of Microstructure on Mechanical Properties 84 4.3.1 Effect of Porosity 84 4.3.2 Effect of Grain Size 85 4.4 Designing with Ductile and Brittle Materials 85 4.4.1 Designing with Metals 85 4.4.2 Designing with Ceramics 85 4.4.3 Designing with Polymers 87 4.5 Electrical Properties 87 4.5.1 Electrical Conductivity of Materials 87 4.5.2 Electrical Conductivity of Conducting Polymers 88 4.6 Magnetic Properties 88 4.6.1 Origins of Magnetic Response in Materials 88 4.6.2 Meaning and Definition of Relevant Magnetic Properties 89 4.6.3 Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic Materials 89 4.6.4 Ferromagnetic Materials 90 4.6.5 Ferrimagnetic Materials 91 4.6.6 Magnetization Curves and Hysteresis 91 4.6.7 Hyperthermia Treatment of Tumors using Magnetic Nanoparticles 91 4.7 Thermal Properties 92 4.7.1 Thermal Conductivity 92 4.7.2 Thermal Expansion Coefficient 93 4.8 Optical Properties 94 4.9 Concluding Remarks 95 5 Surface Properties of Materials 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Surface Energy 100 5.2.1 Determination of Surface Energy of Materials 101 5.2.2 Measurement of Contact Angle 102 5.2.3 Effect of Surface Energy 104 5.3 Surface Chemistry 104 5.3.1 Characterization of Surface Chemistry 105 5.4 Surface Charge 108 5.4.1 Surface Charging Mechanisms 108 5.4.2 Measurement of Surface Charge and Potential 109 5.4.3 Effect of Surface Charge 110 5.5 Surface Topography 110 5.5.1 Surface Roughness Parameters 112 5.5.2 Characterization of Surface Topography 112 5.5.3 Effect of Surface Topography on Cell and Tissue Response 115 5.6 Concluding Remarks 116 Part III Classes of Materials Used as Biomaterials 119 6 Metallic Biomaterials 121 6.1 Introduction 121 6.2 Crystal Structure of Metals 121 6.3 Polymorphic Transformation 122 6.3.1 Formation of Nuclei of Critical Size 123 6.3.2 Rate of Phase Transformation 123 6.3.3 Diffusive Transformations 124 6.3.4 Displacive Transformations 125 6.3.5 Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagrams 125 6.4 Alloys 126 6.5 Shape (Morphology) of Phases 126 6.6 Phase Diagrams 127 6.7 Production of Metals 129 6.7.1 Wrought Metal Products 129 6.7.2 Cast Metal Products 130 6.7.3 Alternative Production Methods 130 6.8 Mechanisms for Strengthening Metals 131 6.8.1 Solid Solution Hardening 131 6.8.2 Precipitation and Dispersion Hardening 131 6.8.3 Work Hardening 131 6.8.4 Grain Size Refinement 132 6.9 Metals Used as Biomaterials 133 6.9.1 Stainless Steels 133 6.9.2 Titanium and Titanium Alloys 134 6.9.3 Cobalt-Based Alloys 137 6.9.4 Nickel-Titanium Metals and Alloys 141 6.9.5 Tantalum 143 6.9.6 Zirconium Alloys 144 6.9.7 Noble Metals 144 6.10 Degradable Metals 145 6.10.1 Designing Degradable Metals 145 6.10.2 Degradable Magnesium Alloys 146 6.11 Concluding Remarks 149 7 Ceramic Biomaterials 153 7.1 Introduction 153 7.2 Design and Processing of Ceramics 154 7.2.1 Design Principles for Mechanically Reliable Ceramics 154 7.2.2 Principles of Processing Ceramics 155 7.3 Chemically Unreactive Ceramics 157 7.3.1 Alumina (Al2O3) 157 7.3.2 Zirconia (ZrO2) 158 7.3.3 Alumina-Zirconia (Al2O3-ZrO2) Composites 160 7.3.4 Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) 161 7.4 Calcium Phosphates 162 7.4.1 Solubility of Calcium Phosphates 163 7.4.2 Degradation of Calcium Phosphates 164 7.4.3 Hydroxyapatite 164 7.4.4 Beta-Tricalcium Phosphate (ß-TCP) 165 7.4.5 Biphasic Calcium Phosphate (BCP) 165 7.4.6 Other Calcium Phosphates 166 7.4.7 Mechanical Properties of Calcium Phosphates 167 7.5 Calcium Phosphate Cement (CPC) 167 7.5.1 CPC Chemistry 168 7.5.2 CPC Setting (Hardening) Mechanism 168 7.5.3 Microstructure of CPCs 168 7.5.4 Properties of CPCs 169 7.6 Calcium Sulfate 170 7.7 Glasses 170 7.7.1 Glass Transition Temperature (Tg) 171 7.7.2 Glass Viscosity 171 7.7.3 Production of Glasses 172 7.8 Chemically Unreactive Glasses 172 7.9 Bioactive Glasses 173 7.9.1 Bioactive Glass Composition 173 7.9.2 Mechanism of Conversion to Hydroxyapatite 174 7.9.3 Reactivity of Bioactive Glasses 175 7.9.4 Mechanical Properties of Bioactive Glasses 176 7.9.5 Release of Ions from Bioactive Glasses 177 7.9.6 Applications of Bioactive Glasses 178 7.10 Glass-Ceramics 179 7.10.1 Production of Glass-Ceramics 179 7.10.2 Bioactive Glass-Ceramics 180 7.10.3 Chemically Unreactive Glass-Ceramics 181 7.10.4 Lithium Disilicate Glass-Ceramics 181 7.11 Concluding Remarks 183 8 Synthetic Polymers I: Nondegradable Polymers 187 8.1 Introduction 187 8.2 Polymer Science Fundamentals 188 8.2.1 Copolymers 188 8.2.2 Linear and Crosslinked Molecules 189 8.2.3 Molecular Symmetry and Stereoregularity 189 8.2.4 Molecular Weight 190 8.2.5 Molecular Conformation 192 8.2.6 Glass Transition Temperature (Tg) 193 8.2.7 Semicrystalline Polymers 194 8.2.8 Molecular Orientation in Amorphous and Semicrystalline Polymers 197 8.3 Production of Polymers 198 8.3.1 Polymer Synthesis 198 8.3.2 Production Methods 199 8.4 Mechanical Properties of Polymers 199 8.4.1 Effect of Temperature 199 8.4.2 Effect of Crystallinity 200 8.4.3 Effect of Molecular Weight 200 8.4.4 Effect of Molecular Orientation 200 8.5 Thermoplastic Polymers 201 8.5.1 Polyolefins 201 8.5.2 Fluorinated Hydrocarbon Polymers 203 8.5.3 Vinyl Polymers 204 8.5.4 Acrylic Polymers 204 8.5.5 Polyaryletherketones 205 8.5.6 Polycarbonate, Polyethersulfone, and Polysulfone 206 8.5.7 Polyesters 206 8.5.8 Polyamides 206 8.6 Elastomeric Polymers 207 8.6.1 Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) 208 8.7 Special Topic: Polyurethanes 209 8.7.1 Production of Polyurethanes 209 8.7.2 Structure-Property Relations in Polyurethanes 210 8.7.3 Chemical Stability of Polyurethanes in vivo 211 8.7.4 Biomedical Applications of Polyurethanes 212 8.8 Water-soluble Polymers 212 8.9 Concluding Remarks 213 9 Synthetic Polymers II: Degradable Polymers 217 9.1 Introduction 217 9.2 Degradation of Polymers 217 9.3 Erosion of Degradable Polymers 218 9.4 Characterization of Degradation and Erosion 219 9.5 Factors Controlling Polymer Degradation 219 9.5.1 Chemical Structure 219 9.5.2 pH 220 9.5.3 Copolymerization 221 9.5.4 Crystallinity 222 9.5.5 Molecular Weight 222 9.5.6 Water Uptake 223 9.6 Factors Controlling Polymer Erosion 223 9.6.1 Bulk Erosion 224 9.6.2 Surface Erosion 224 9.7 Design Criteria for Degradable Polymers 225 9.8 Types of Degradable Polymers Relevant to Biomaterials 226 9.8.1 Poly(alpha-hydroxy Esters) 226 9.8.2 Polycaprolactone 230 9.8.3 Polyanhydrides 231 9.8.4 Poly(Ortho Esters) 233 9.8.5 Polydioxanone 234 9.8.6 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 235 9.8.7 Poly(Propylene Fumarate) 236 9.8.8 Polyacetals and Polyketals 237 9.8.9 Poly(polyol sebacate) 238 9.8.10 Polycarbonates 240 9.9 Concluding Remarks 241 10 Natural Polymers 245 10.1 Introduction 245 10.2 General Properties and Characteristics of Natural Polymers 246 10.3 Protein-Based Natural Polymers 246 10.3.1 Collagen 247 10.3.2 Gelatin 255 10.3.3 Silk 256 10.3.4 Elastin 259 10.3.5 Fibrin 260 10.3.6 Laminin 261 10.4 Polysaccharide-Based Polymers 262 10.4.1 Hyaluronic Acid 263 10.4.2 Sulfated Polysaccharides 265 10.4.3 Alginates 267 10.4.4 Chitosan 269 10.4.5 Agarose 271 10.4.6 Cellulose 272 10.4.7 Bacterial (Microbial) Cellulose 274 10.5 Concluding Remarks 275 11 Hydrogels 279 11.1 Introduction 279 11.2 Characteristics of Hydrogels 279 11.3 Types of Hydrogels 281 11.4 Creation of Hydrogels 281 11.4.1 Chemical Hydrogels 281 11.4.2 Physical Hydrogels 282 11.5 Characterization of Sol to Gel Transition 284 11.6 Swelling Behavior of Hydrogels 285 11.6.1 Theory of Swelling 285 11.6.2 Determination of Swelling Parameters 288 11.7 Mechanical Properties of Hydrogels 289 11.8 Transport Properties of Hydrogels 289 11.9 Surface Properties of Hydrogels 290 11.10 Environmentally Responsive Hydrogels 291 11.10.1 pH Responsive Hydrogels 291 11.10.2 Temperature Responsive Hydrogels 293 11.11 Synthetic Hydrogels 294 11.11.1 Polyethylene Glycol and Polyethylene Oxide 294 11.11.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol 297 11.11.3 Polyhydroxyethyl Methacrylate 298 11.11.4 Polyacrylic Acid and Polymethacrylic Acid 298 11.11.5 Poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) 298 11.12 Natural Hydrogels 299 11.13 Applications of Hydrogels 301 11.13.1 Drug Delivery 301 11.13.2 Cell Encapsulation and Immunoisolation 302 11.13.3 Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 302 11.14 Concluding Remarks 303 12 Composite Biomaterials 307 12.1 Introduction 307 12.2 Types of Composites 307 12.3 Mechanical Properties of Composites 307 12.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Fiber Composites 308 12.3.2 Mechanical Properties of Particulate Composites 309 12.4 Biomedical Applications of Composites 311 12.5 Concluding Remarks 313 13 Surface Modification and Biological Functionalization of Biomaterials 315 13.1 Introduction 315 13.2 Surface Modification 315 13.3 Surface Modification Methods 316 13.4 Plasma Processes 317 13.4.1 Plasma Treatment Principles 317 13.4.2 Advantages and Drawbacks of Plasma Treatment 318 13.4.3 Applications of Plasma Treatment 318 13.5 Chemical Vapor Deposition 319 13.5.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition of Inorganic Films 319 13.5.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition of Polymer Films 319 13.6 Physical Techniques for Surface Modification 322 13.7 Parylene Coating 322 13.8 Radiation Grafting 323 13.9 Chemical Reactions 323 13.10 Solution Processing of Coatings 324 13.10.1 Silanization 324 13.10.2 Langmuir-Blodgett Films 325 13.10.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers 328 13.10.4 Layer-by-Layer Deposition 329 13.11 Biological Functionalization of Biomaterials 330 13.11.1 Immobilization Methods 331 13.11.2 Physical Immobilization 331 13.11.3 Chemical Immobilization 332 13.11.4 Heparin Modification of Biomaterials 334 13.12 Concluding Remarks 337 Part IV Degradation of Biomaterials in the Physiological Environment 339 14 Degradation of Metallic and Ceramic Biomaterials 341 14.1 Introduction 341 14.2 Corrosion of Metals 342 14.2.1 Principles of Metal Corrosion 342 14.2.2 Rate of Corrosion 345 14.2.3 Pourbaix Diagrams 346 14.2.4 Types of Electrochemical Corrosion 347 14.3 Corrosion of Metal Implants in the Physiological Environment 349 14.3.1 Minimizing Metal Implant Corrosion in vivo 351 14.4 Degradation of Ceramics 351 14.4.1 Degradation by Dissolution and Disintegration 351 14.4.2 Cell-Mediated Degradation 352 14.5 Concluding Remarks 353 15 Degradation of Polymeric Biomaterials 355 15.1 Introduction 355 15.2 Hydrolytic Degradation 356 15.2.1 Hydrolytic Degradation Pathways 356 15.2.2 Role of the Physiological Environment 357 15.2.3 Effect of Local pH Changes 357 15.2.4 Effect of Inorganic Ions 358 15.2.5 Effect of Bacteria 358 15.3 Enzyme-Catalyzed Hydrolysis 358 15.3.1 Principles of Enzyme-Catalyzed Hydrolysis 359 15.3.2 Role of Enzymes in Hydrolytic Degradation in vitro 360 15.3.3 Role of Enzymes in Hydrolytic Degradation in vivo 362 15.4 Oxidative Degradation 362 15.4.1 Principles of Oxidative Degradation 363 15.4.2 Production of Radicals and Reactive Species in vivo 363 15.4.3 Role of Radicals and Reactive Species in Degradation 366 15.4.4 Oxidative Degradation of Polymeric Biomaterials 367 15.5 Other Types of Degradation 369 15.5.1 Stress Cracking 369 15.5.2 Metal Ion-Induced Oxidative Degradation 370 15.5.3 Oxidative Degradation Induced by the External Environment 370 15.6 Concluding Remarks 371 Part V Biocompatibility Phenomena 373 16 Biocompatibility Fundamentals 375 16.1 Introduction 375 16.2 Biocompatibility Phenomena with Implanted Devices 375 16.2.1 Consequences of Failed Biocompatibility 376 16.2.2 Basic Pattern of Biocompatibility Processes 377 16.3 Protein and Cell Interactions with Biomaterial Surfaces 378 16.3.1 Protein Adsorption onto Biomaterials 378 16.3.2 Cell-Biomaterial Interactions 378 16.4 Cells and Organelles 380 16.4.1 Plasma Membrane 380 16.4.2 Cell Nucleus 382 16.4.3 Ribosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, and the Golgi Apparatus 384 16.4.4 Mitochondria 386 16.4.5 Cytoskeleton 386 16.4.6 Cell Contacts and Membrane Receptors 388 16.5 Extracellular Matrix and Tissues 389 16.5.1 Components of the Extracellular Matrix 389 16.5.2 Attachment Factors 389 16.5.3 Cell Adhesion Molecules 390 16.5.4 Molecular and Physical Factors in Cell Attachment 391 16.5.5 Tissue Types and Origins 391 16.6 Plasma and Blood Cells 393 16.6.1 Erythrocytes 393 16.6.2 Leukocytes 395 16.7 Platelet Adhesion to Biomaterial Surfaces 396 16.8 Platelets and the Coagulation Process 396 16.9 Cell Types and Their Roles in Biocompatibility Phenomena 398 16.10 Concluding Remarks 399 17 Mechanical Factors in Biocompatibility Phenomena 401 17.1 Introduction 401 17.2 Stages and Mechanisms of Mechanotransduction 401 17.2.1 Force Transduction Pathways 401 17.2.2 Signal Transduction Pathways and Other Mechanisms 403 17.2.3 Mechanisms of Cellular Response 404 17.3 Mechanical Stress-Induced Biocompatibility Phenomena 407 17.3.1 Implantable Devices in Bone Healing 407 17.3.2 Implantable Devices in the Cardiovascular System 408 17.3.3 Soft Tissue Healing 410 17.3.4 Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering 411 17.4 Outcomes of Transduction of Extracellular Stresses and Responses 414 17.5 Concluding Remarks 414 18 Inflammatory Reactions to Biomaterials 417 18.1 Introduction 417 18.2 Implant Interaction with Plasma Proteins 418 18.3 Formation of Provisional Matrix 418 18.4 Acute Inflammation and Neutrophils 419 18.4.1 Neutrophil Activation and Extravasation 419 18.4.2 Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species 421 18.4.3 Phagocytosis by Neutrophils 421 18.4.4 Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) 421 18.4.5 Neutrophil Apoptosis 423 18.5 Chronic Inflammation and Macrophages 423 18.5.1 Macrophage Differentiation and Recruitment to Implant Surfaces 423 18.5.2 Phagocytosis by M1 Macrophages 424 18.5.3 Generation of Oxidative Radicals by M1 Macrophages 425 18.5.4 Anti-inflammatory Activities of M2 Macrophages 425 18.6 Granulation Tissue 426 18.7 Foreign Body Response 427 18.8 Fibrosis and Fibrous Encapsulation 429 18.9 Resolution of Inflammation 430 18.10 Inflammation and Biocompatibility 431 18.11 Concluding Remarks 433 19 Immune Responses to Biomaterials 437 19.1 Introduction 437 19.2 Adaptive Immune System 437 19.2.1 Lymphocyte Origins of Two Types of Adaptive Immune Defense 438 19.2.2 Antibody Characteristics and Classes 438 19.2.3 Major Histocompatibility Complex and Self-Tolerance 439 19.2.4 B Cell Activation and Release of Antibodies 440 19.2.5 T Cell Development and Cell-Mediated Immunity 440 19.3 The Complement System 443 19.4 Adaptive Immune Responses to Biomaterials 443 19.4.1 Hypersensitivity Responses 444 19.4.2 Immune Responses to Protein-Based Biomaterials and Complexes 445 19.5 Designing Biomaterials to Modulate Immune Responses 446 19.6 Concluding Remarks 447 20 Implant-Associated Infections 449 20.1 Introduction 449 20.2 Bacteria Associated with Implant Infections 450 20.3 Biofilms and their Characteristics 450 20.4 Sequence of Biofilm Formation on Implant Surfaces 451 20.4.1 Passive Reversible Adhesion of Bacteria to Implant Surface 452 20.4.2 Specific Irreversible Attachment of Bacteria to Implant Surface 452 20.4.3 Microcolony Expansion and Formation of Biofilm Matrix 452 20.4.4 Biofilm Maturation and Tower Formation 453 20.4.5 Dispersal and Return to Planktonic State 453 20.5 Effect of Biomaterial Characteristics on Bacterial Adhesion 453 20.6 Biofilm Shielding of Infection from Host Defenses and Antibiotics 454 20.7 Effects of Biofilm on Host Tissues and Biomaterial Interactions 454 20.8 Strategies for Controlling Implant Infections 456 20.8.1 Orthopedic Implants Designed for Rapid Tissue Integration 456 20.8.2 Surface Nanotopography 457 20.8.3 Silver Nanoparticles 458 20.8.4 Anti-biofilm Polysaccharides 458 20.8.5 Bacteriophage Therapy 458 20.8.6 Mechanical Disruption 459 20.9 Concluding Remarks 460 21 Response to Surface Topography and Particulate Materials 463 21.1 Introduction 463 21.2 Effect of Biomaterial Surface Topography on Cell Response 464 21.2.1 Microscale Surface Topography in Osseointegration 466 21.2.2 Microscale and Nanoscale Patterned Surfaces in Macrophage Differentiation 469 21.2.3 Microscale Patterned Surfaces in Neural Regeneration 470 21.3 Biomaterial Surface Topography for Antimicrobial Activity 471 21.3.1 Microscale Topography with Antimicrobial Activity 471 21.3.2 Nanoscale Topography with Antimicrobial Activity 477 21.4 Microparticle-Induced Host Responses 482 21.4.1 Mechanisms of Microparticle Endocytosis 482 21.4.2 Response to Microparticles 483 21.4.3 Microparticle Distribution in the Organs 487 21.4.4 The Inflammasome and Microparticle-Induced Inflammation 488 21.4.5 Wear Debris-Induced Osteolysis 488 21.5 Nanoparticle-Induced Host Responses 489 21.5.1 Mechanisms of Nanoparticle Endocytosis 489 21.5.2 Response to Nanoparticles 489 21.5.3 Cytotoxicity Effects of Nanoparticles 492 21.6 Concluding Remarks 496 22 Tests of Biocompatibility of Prospective Implant Materials 499 22.1 Introduction 499 22.2 Biocompatibility Standards and Regulations 499 22.2.1 ISO 10993 499 22.2.2 FDA Guidelines and Requirements 500 22.3 In vitro Biocompatibility Test Procedures 500 22.3.1 Cytotoxicity Tests 500 22.3.2 Genotoxicity Tests 502 22.3.3 Hemocompatibility Tests 504 22.4 In vivo Biocompatibility Test Procedures 507 22.4.1 Implantation Tests 507 22.4.2 Thrombogenicity Tests 509 22.4.3 Irritation and Sensitization Tests 510 22.4.4 Systemic Toxicity Tests 511 22.5 Clinical Trials of Biomaterials 511 22.6 FDA Review and Approval 512 22.7 Case Study: The Proplast Temporomandibular Joint 512 22.8 Concluding Remarks 513 Part VI Applications of Biomaterials 515 23 Biomaterials for Hard Tissue Repair 517 23.1 Introduction 517 23.2 Healing of Bone Fracture 518 23.2.1 Mechanism of Fracture Healing 518 23.2.2 Internal Fracture Fixation Devices 520 23.3 Healing of Bone Defects 521 23.3.1 Bone Defects 521 23.3.2 Bone Grafts 521 23.3.3 Bone Graft Substitutes 523 23.3.4 Healing of Nonstructural Bone Defects 527 23.3.5 Healing of Structural Bone Defects 532 23.4 Total Joint Replacement 535 23.4.1 Total Hip Arthroplasty 535 23.4.2 Total Knee Arthroplasty 536 23.5 Spinal Fusion 536 23.5.1 Biomaterials for Spinal Fusion 538 23.6 Dental Implants and Restorations 539 23.6.1 Dental Implants 539 23.6.2 Direct Dental Restorations 539 23.6.3 Indirect Dental Restorations 540 23.7 Concluding Remarks 543 24 Biomaterials for Soft Tissue Repair 547 24.1 Introduction 547 24.2 Surgical Sutures and Adhesives 548 24.2.1 Sutures 548 24.2.2 Soft Tissue Adhesives 549 24.3 The Cardiovascular System 550 24.3.1 The Heart 550 24.3.2 The Circulatory System 551 24.4 Vascular Grafts 551 24.4.1 Desirable Properties and Characteristics of Synthetic Vascular Grafts 552 24.4.2 Synthetic Vascular Graft Materials 552 24.4.3 Patency of Vascular Grafts 552 24.5 Balloon Angioplasty 555 24.6 Intravascular Stents 556 24.6.1 Bare-Metal Stents 556 24.6.2 Drug-Eluting Stents 557 24.6.3 Degradable Stents 557 24.7 Prosthetic Heart Valves 558 24.7.1 Mechanical Valves 558 24.7.2 Bioprosthetic Valves 559 24.8 Ophthalmologic Applications 560 24.8.1 Contact Lenses 561 24.8.2 Intraocular Lenses 563 24.9 Skin Wound Healing 566 24.9.1 Skin Wound Healing Fundamentals 567 24.9.2 Complicating Factors in Skin Wound Healing 569 24.9.3 Biomaterials-Based Therapies 569 24.9.4 Nanoparticle-Based Therapies 574 24.10 Concluding Remarks 576 25 Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine 581 25.1 Introduction 581 25.2 Principles of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine 582 25.2.1 Cells for Tissue Engineering 584 25.2.2 Biomolecules and Nutrients for in vitro Cell Culture 587 25.2.3 Growth Factors for Tissue Engineering 587 25.2.4 Cell Therapy 588 25.2.5 Gene Therapy 589 25.3 Biomaterials and Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 589 25.3.1 Properties of Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 589 25.3.2 Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 591 25.3.3 Porous Solids 591 25.3.4 Hydrogels 594 25.3.5 Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Scaffolds 594 25.4 Creation of Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 595 25.4.1 Creation of Scaffolds in the Form of Porous Solids 596 25.4.2 Electrospinning 601 25.4.3 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) Techniques 603 25.4.4 Formation of Hydrogel Scaffolds 608 25.4.5 Preparation of Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Scaffolds 608 25.5 Three-dimensional Bioprinting 609 25.5.1 Inkjet-Based Bioprinting 609 25.5.2 Microextrusion-Based Bioprinting 611 25.6 Tissue Engineering Techniques for the Regeneration of Functional Tissues and Organs 614 25.6.1 Bone Tissue Engineering 614 25.6.2 Articular Cartilage Tissue Engineering 615 25.6.3 Tissue Engineering of Articular Joints 618 25.6.4 Tissue Engineering of Tendons and Ligaments 621 25.6.5 Skin Tissue Engineering 624 25.6.6 Bladder Tissue Engineering 626 25.7 Concluding Remarks 629 26 Biomaterials for Drug Delivery 633 26.1 Introduction 633 26.2 Controlled Drug Release 634 26.2.1 Drug Delivery Systems 636 26.2.2 Mechanisms of Drug Release 636 26.3 Designing Biomaterials for Drug Delivery Systems 638 26.4 Microparticle-based Delivery Systems 638 26.4.1 Preparation of Polymer Microsphere Delivery Systems 639 26.4.2 Applications of Microparticle Delivery Systems 640 26.5 Hydrogel-based Delivery Systems 640 26.5.1 Environmentally Responsive Drug Delivery Systems 641 26.5.2 Drug Delivery Systems Responsive to External Physical Stimuli 644 26.6 Nanoparticle-based Delivery Systems 648 26.6.1 Distribution and Fate of Nanoparticle-based Drug Delivery Systems 649 26.6.2 Targeting of Nanoparticles to Cells 650 26.6.3 Polymer-based Nanoparticle Systems 653 26.6.4 Lipid-based Nanoparticle Systems 655 26.6.5 Polymer Conjugates 663 26.6.6 Dendrimers 666 26.6.7 Inorganic Nanoparticles 667 26.7 Delivery of Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) 668 26.7.1 Chemical Modification of siRNA 670 26.7.2 Biomaterials for siRNA Delivery 671 26.8 Biological Drug Delivery Systems 675 26.8.1 Exosomes for Therapeutic Biomolecule Delivery 675 26.9 Concluding Remarks 676 Index 681

Notă biografică

Mohamed N. Rahaman, Professor Emeritus of Materials Science and Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, USA. Dr. Rahaman is a Fellow of the American Ceramic Society, the author of five textbooks, the author and co-author of over 280 reviewed journal articles and conference proceedings, and the co-inventor on three US patents in the area of medical devices. Roger F. Brown, Professor Emeritus of Biological Sciences, Missouri University of Science and Technology, USA. Dr Brown is the author and co-author of over 60 reviewed journal articles and conference proceedings, and is a co-inventor on one US patent pertaining to the use of bioactive borate glass microfibers for soft tissue repair.