The City Becomes a Symbol: The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Berlin, 1945-1949: The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Berlin, 1945-1949: The U.S. Army in the Cold War
Editat de Center of Military History (U.S. Army) Autor William Stivers, Donald A. Carteren Limba Engleză Paperback – aug 2017 – vârsta de la 17 ani
The
City
Becomes
a
Symbol:
The
U.S.
Army
in
the
Occupation
of
Berlin,
1945–1948,
by
William
Stivers
and
Donald
A.
Carter,
is
the
latest
publication
in
the
Center
of
Military
History’s
The
U.S.
Army
in
the
Cold
War
series.
The
volume
begins
in
July
1945
during
the
opening
days
of
the
occupation
of
Berlin
by
the
Allied
powers.
The
four
powers,
the
United
States,
Great
Britain,
France,
and
the
Soviet
Union,
negotiated
on
all
aspects
of
the
city
from
troop
placements
and
headquarters
locations
to
food
distribution
and
which
Berliners
could
serve
in
governing
the
city.
During
the
initial
years
of
the
occupation
differences
emerged
over
policies
and
goals
that
lead
to
the
Soviets
cutting
off
road
and
rail
access
to
the
city.
With
no
other
options,
U.S.
and
British
forces
had
to
supply
their
sectors
of
the
city
by
air.
In
addition
to
meeting
the
basic
needs
of
the
residents
in
their
sectors,
the
Western
allies
worked
to
win
the
loyalties
of
the
citizens
and
political
leaders
to
resist
the
spread
of
Soviet
communism.
These
first
four
years
of
occupation
set
the
stage
for
a
decades-long
face-off
with
the
Soviets
in
Germany.
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Specificații
ISBN-13: 9780160939730
ISBN-10: 0160939739
Pagini: 346
Editura: United States Dept. of Defense
Colecția Department of the Army
Seria The U.S. Army in the Cold War
ISBN-10: 0160939739
Pagini: 346
Editura: United States Dept. of Defense
Colecția Department of the Army
Seria The U.S. Army in the Cold War
Recenzii
Featured
as
a
selection
for2017
Notable
Government
Documents
Review
Excerpt
fromLibrary
Journalreviews
website:
https://reviews.libraryjournal.com/2018/05/blogs/eviews/research-eviews/the-gpos-year-of-change-notable-government-documents-2017/The City Becomes a Symbol: The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Berlin, 1945–1949.by William Stivers. Ctr. for Military History, U.S. Army. 2017. 326p. illus. maps. SuDoc# D 114.2:C 67/2/B 45.purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo88399
Thoroughly researched and documented, this book illuminates the development of the Cold War from the vantage of Occupied Berlin. It provides a detailed account of the army’s role in the first four years of the occupation, supplemented with maps, photographs, and an extensive bibliography.
Each year, theALA GODORT Notable Documents Panelselects what it considers to be the most “Notable Government Documents” published during the previous year by Federal, state, and local governments and includes the list of winners in its prestigiousLibrary Journal (LJ). Typically, many of the Federal publications it picks are available through the Government Publishing Office's U.S. Government Online Bookstore (https://bookstore.gpo.gov)
Known as "the most trusted and respected publication for the library community,"LJprovides groundbreaking features and analytical news reports covering technology, management, policy and other professional concerns to public, academic and institutional libraries. Its hefty reviews sections evaluate 8000+ reviews annually of books, ebooks, audiobooks, videos/DVDs, databases, systems and websites."
https://reviews.libraryjournal.com/2018/05/blogs/eviews/research-eviews/the-gpos-year-of-change-notable-government-documents-2017/The City Becomes a Symbol: The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Berlin, 1945–1949.by William Stivers. Ctr. for Military History, U.S. Army. 2017. 326p. illus. maps. SuDoc# D 114.2:C 67/2/B 45.purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo88399
Thoroughly researched and documented, this book illuminates the development of the Cold War from the vantage of Occupied Berlin. It provides a detailed account of the army’s role in the first four years of the occupation, supplemented with maps, photographs, and an extensive bibliography.
Each year, theALA GODORT Notable Documents Panelselects what it considers to be the most “Notable Government Documents” published during the previous year by Federal, state, and local governments and includes the list of winners in its prestigiousLibrary Journal (LJ). Typically, many of the Federal publications it picks are available through the Government Publishing Office's U.S. Government Online Bookstore (https://bookstore.gpo.gov)
Known as "the most trusted and respected publication for the library community,"LJprovides groundbreaking features and analytical news reports covering technology, management, policy and other professional concerns to public, academic and institutional libraries. Its hefty reviews sections evaluate 8000+ reviews annually of books, ebooks, audiobooks, videos/DVDs, databases, systems and websites."
Notă biografică
Dr.
William
Stivers
earned
a
Ph.D.
in
international
relations
history
from
Johns
Hopkins
University.
He
has
held
teaching
posts
at
the
University
of
California
at
Santa
Cruz,
Colorado
College,
the
University
of
Southern
California’s
international
relations
graduate
program
in
Germany,
and
Martin
Luther
University
in
Halle,
Germany.
From
1986
to
1990,
he
served
as
historian,
G–3,
U.S.
Command,
Berlin.
He
came
to
the
U.S.
Army
Center
of
Military
History
(CMH)
in
1998
and
retired
in
2013.
He
has
published
books
and
articles
dealing
with
Anglo-American
relations
in
the
1920s,
U.S.
Middle
East
policy,
and
postwar
German
history.
Dr. Donald A. Carter graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1977 and received a Ph.D. in history from the Ohio State University in 1985. He joined the U.S. Army Center of Military History as a historian in 2003. His publications include “Eisenhower Versus the Generals” in the Journal of Military History (October 2007); “Wargames in Europe: The U.S. Army Experiments with Atomic Doctrine” in Blueprints for Battle (University Press of Kentucky, 2012); Forging the Shield: The U.S. Army in Europe, 1951–1962 (U.S. Army Center of Military History, 2015); and The City Becomes a Symbol: the U.S. Army in the Occupation of Berlin, 1945¬–1949 (U.S. Army Center of Military History, 2017).
Dr. Donald A. Carter graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1977 and received a Ph.D. in history from the Ohio State University in 1985. He joined the U.S. Army Center of Military History as a historian in 2003. His publications include “Eisenhower Versus the Generals” in the Journal of Military History (October 2007); “Wargames in Europe: The U.S. Army Experiments with Atomic Doctrine” in Blueprints for Battle (University Press of Kentucky, 2012); Forging the Shield: The U.S. Army in Europe, 1951–1962 (U.S. Army Center of Military History, 2015); and The City Becomes a Symbol: the U.S. Army in the Occupation of Berlin, 1945¬–1949 (U.S. Army Center of Military History, 2017).
Cuprins
Foreword
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xi
The Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Chapter
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. The Division of Germany and Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Zones in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
European Advisory Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
SHAEF Planning and Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Final Drawing of Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Carving Up the Spoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Stopping at the Elbe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Did the United States Squander Political Advantage? . . . . . . 32
3. The Road to Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Military Government for Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Redeployments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Potsdam Interlude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
The Move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Access to Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
The Americans Arrive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4. The Beginning of Quadripartite Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
The Red Army Takes its Revenge on Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Berlin in Soviet Hands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
The Americans Take Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Completing the Movement into Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Transient Persons Camps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Establishing the Kommandatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Kommandatura Starts Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
France Receives Its Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Security in the U.S. Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5. Victors and Vanquished in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Preventative Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
The Purge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Benign Dictatorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Living as Conquerors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Reaping the Spoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
The Black Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Violence and “Depredations” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Black Soldiers in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Groping for Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6. The Occupation Transformed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Reorganization and Entrenchment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Restoring Military Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Demilitarization of the Occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Turning Berlin to the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Clay Takes Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Restoring Local Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Choosing Sides: Defining Political Parties in Berlin . . . . . . . . 153
The Referendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Toward Elections in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Aggressive Neutrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Politics and Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
The Election and its Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7. The Fissure Widens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
The Occupation Becomes Routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Preparing the Political Battleground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
The Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Restoring Self-Government to Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Seating the Magistrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
The Ostrowski Affair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
The Deadlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Reuter’s Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Military Government Before the Storm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8. The Commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Genesis of the Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Risk of Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Partition Looms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
The April “Crisis” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
The Military Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Currency in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Breakup of the Kommandatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
The Reckoning Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Confronting the Blockade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
The Debate Moves to Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
The Airlift in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
The City Becomes a Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
9. The Split City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Seeking Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Moscow Diplomacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
The Negotiations Founder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
The City Begins to Split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
U.S. Troops in Berlin Continue the Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
The Allies’ Ultimatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Clay Gains the Upper Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
The Mixed Currency System and Holes in the Blockade . . . . 278
The Final Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
The Final Throes of Currency Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
The Soviet Retreat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
10. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Bibliographical Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Maps
No.
1. Proposed Occupied Zones, February 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2. Occupied Berlin, 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3. Allied Front Lines, Germany, 16 April 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4. Ground Routes for U.S. Forces to Berlin, Occupied
Germany, July 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5. Route of U.S. Army Occupation Forces into Berlin,
Occupied Germany, 22 May–25 June 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6. Berlin Airlift Routes, Occupied Germany, June 1948–May 1949 . . . . 236
Illustrations
Curious German citizens of Berlin gather around a U.S. tank
of the 2d Armored Division in July 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel signs the unconditional surrender
to the Allies, May 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Col. Frank L. Howley, deputy commandant and head of
U.S. Office of Military Government in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Maj. Gen. Floyd L. Parks, first U.S. military governor in Berlin . . . . . 46
Colonel Howley’s treasured Horch roadster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
U.S. convoy under way to Berlin with Colonel Howley’s Horch
in the lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Lt. Gen. Lucius D. Clay confers with Robert D. Murphy . . . . . . . . . . . 55
A U.S. military government detachment camps in the Grünewald
after the initial convoy into the city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
A Russian soldier and a German woman “negotiate” over a bicycle . . . . 65
Soviet troops leave the U.S. Sector of Berlin, July 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
GIs view the Brandenburg Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Pin board map showing the Allied confiscations in the
Western sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Order No. 1 of the Allied Kommandatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Allied Kommandatura headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
An example of destruction in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Berliners attempt to move on with their lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Allied leaders gather following meeting of the Allied
Control Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
General Clay’s quarters in Dahlem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Dinner at the Berlin officers mess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
German police round up black marketeers in front of the Reichstag
building, March 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
A patrol of the 16th Constabulary Squadron passes the guard gate
of the squadron’s headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
U.S. military police motorcycles on patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Two soldiers in the Tiergarten in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Soviet Berlin Commandant Maj. Gen. Alexander G. Kotikov . . . . . . . 159
Soviet Marshal Vasily D. Sokolovsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Emergency food distribution, June 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
German weekly rations displayed at the exhibition of U.S. Military
Government Progress, February 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Ernst Reuter, Mayor of Berlin, 1947–1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Louise Schröder and the Berlin Magistrat, 1947 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
General Omar N. Bradley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Currency stamped with “B” for distribution in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
U.S. C–47 Skymasters, a mainstay in the airlift, line up
at Tempelhof Airfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Landing at Tempelhof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
An Army engineer operates a bulldozer as German laborers clear
the field with shovels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Walter Bedell Smith, U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet
Union, 1946–1948 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
A mob storms the Stadthaus on 6 September 1948 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
A U.S. MP watches for pilferage during unloading operations
at Tempelhof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
U.S. military police on patrol in Zehlendorf, March 1948 . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Soviet military government officers in the U.S. district of Kreuzberg . . . . 288
A U.S. aircrew celebrates the end of the Berlin airlift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Illustrations courtesy of the following sources: pp. 4, 36, 74, 112, 130, National
Archives; 38, 46, 55, 66, 143, 139, 159, 212, 251, U.S. Army; 50, 51, 61, 78, 91,
107, 108, 116, 119, 167, 168, 195, 199, 217, 232, 241, 265, 267, 268, 288, Military
History Institute; 65, 162, Getty Images; 114, William Stivers; 238, 291, U.S.
Air Force.
The Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Chapter
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. The Division of Germany and Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Zones in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
European Advisory Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
SHAEF Planning and Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Final Drawing of Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Carving Up the Spoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Stopping at the Elbe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Did the United States Squander Political Advantage? . . . . . . 32
3. The Road to Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Military Government for Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Redeployments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Potsdam Interlude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
The Move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Access to Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
The Americans Arrive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4. The Beginning of Quadripartite Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
The Red Army Takes its Revenge on Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Berlin in Soviet Hands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
The Americans Take Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Completing the Movement into Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Transient Persons Camps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Establishing the Kommandatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Kommandatura Starts Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
France Receives Its Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Security in the U.S. Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5. Victors and Vanquished in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Preventative Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
The Purge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Benign Dictatorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Living as Conquerors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Reaping the Spoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
The Black Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Violence and “Depredations” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Black Soldiers in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Groping for Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6. The Occupation Transformed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Reorganization and Entrenchment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Restoring Military Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Demilitarization of the Occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Turning Berlin to the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Clay Takes Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Restoring Local Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Choosing Sides: Defining Political Parties in Berlin . . . . . . . . 153
The Referendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Toward Elections in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Aggressive Neutrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Politics and Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
The Election and its Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7. The Fissure Widens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
The Occupation Becomes Routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Preparing the Political Battleground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
The Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Restoring Self-Government to Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Seating the Magistrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
The Ostrowski Affair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
The Deadlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Reuter’s Election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Military Government Before the Storm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8. The Commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Genesis of the Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Risk of Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Partition Looms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
The April “Crisis” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
The Military Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Currency in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Breakup of the Kommandatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
The Reckoning Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Confronting the Blockade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
The Debate Moves to Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
The Airlift in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
The City Becomes a Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
9. The Split City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Seeking Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Moscow Diplomacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
The Negotiations Founder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
The City Begins to Split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
U.S. Troops in Berlin Continue the Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
The Allies’ Ultimatum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Clay Gains the Upper Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
The Mixed Currency System and Holes in the Blockade . . . . 278
The Final Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
The Final Throes of Currency Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
The Soviet Retreat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
10. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Bibliographical Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Maps
No.
1. Proposed Occupied Zones, February 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2. Occupied Berlin, 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3. Allied Front Lines, Germany, 16 April 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4. Ground Routes for U.S. Forces to Berlin, Occupied
Germany, July 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5. Route of U.S. Army Occupation Forces into Berlin,
Occupied Germany, 22 May–25 June 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6. Berlin Airlift Routes, Occupied Germany, June 1948–May 1949 . . . . 236
Illustrations
Curious German citizens of Berlin gather around a U.S. tank
of the 2d Armored Division in July 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel signs the unconditional surrender
to the Allies, May 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Col. Frank L. Howley, deputy commandant and head of
U.S. Office of Military Government in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Maj. Gen. Floyd L. Parks, first U.S. military governor in Berlin . . . . . 46
Colonel Howley’s treasured Horch roadster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
U.S. convoy under way to Berlin with Colonel Howley’s Horch
in the lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Lt. Gen. Lucius D. Clay confers with Robert D. Murphy . . . . . . . . . . . 55
A U.S. military government detachment camps in the Grünewald
after the initial convoy into the city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
A Russian soldier and a German woman “negotiate” over a bicycle . . . . 65
Soviet troops leave the U.S. Sector of Berlin, July 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
GIs view the Brandenburg Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Pin board map showing the Allied confiscations in the
Western sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Order No. 1 of the Allied Kommandatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Allied Kommandatura headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
An example of destruction in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Berliners attempt to move on with their lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Allied leaders gather following meeting of the Allied
Control Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
General Clay’s quarters in Dahlem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Dinner at the Berlin officers mess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
German police round up black marketeers in front of the Reichstag
building, March 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
A patrol of the 16th Constabulary Squadron passes the guard gate
of the squadron’s headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
U.S. military police motorcycles on patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Two soldiers in the Tiergarten in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Soviet Berlin Commandant Maj. Gen. Alexander G. Kotikov . . . . . . . 159
Soviet Marshal Vasily D. Sokolovsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Emergency food distribution, June 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
German weekly rations displayed at the exhibition of U.S. Military
Government Progress, February 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Ernst Reuter, Mayor of Berlin, 1947–1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Louise Schröder and the Berlin Magistrat, 1947 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
General Omar N. Bradley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Currency stamped with “B” for distribution in Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
U.S. C–47 Skymasters, a mainstay in the airlift, line up
at Tempelhof Airfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Landing at Tempelhof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
An Army engineer operates a bulldozer as German laborers clear
the field with shovels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Walter Bedell Smith, U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet
Union, 1946–1948 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
A mob storms the Stadthaus on 6 September 1948 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
A U.S. MP watches for pilferage during unloading operations
at Tempelhof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
U.S. military police on patrol in Zehlendorf, March 1948 . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Soviet military government officers in the U.S. district of Kreuzberg . . . . 288
A U.S. aircrew celebrates the end of the Berlin airlift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Illustrations courtesy of the following sources: pp. 4, 36, 74, 112, 130, National
Archives; 38, 46, 55, 66, 143, 139, 159, 212, 251, U.S. Army; 50, 51, 61, 78, 91,
107, 108, 116, 119, 167, 168, 195, 199, 217, 232, 241, 265, 267, 268, 288, Military
History Institute; 65, 162, Getty Images; 114, William Stivers; 238, 291, U.S.
Air Force.